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PURPOSE: Despite the relevance of socio-economic background in burden of caregivers of persons with epilepsy (PWE), there is a dearth of knowledge about this topic in low-resource settings. Here we attempt to identify the extent of the burden in caregivers of adults with epilepsy in a middle-income country and the factors associated with it. METHODS: In this cross-sectional study, we evaluated the level of burden with the Zarit Caregiver Burden Inventory. A comprehensive questionnaire was developed to assess the demographics of patients and caregivers. Epilepsy-related factors were obtained by interview and file review. Depressive, anxiety symptoms, and sleep quality were evaluated by Beck Depression Inventory, State and Trait Anxiety Inventory, and Pittsburgh Sleep Quality Index. Stigma was evaluated by the Stigma Scale of Epilepsy. RESULTS: The caregiver's burden was mild to moderate in our sample. The factors most strongly associated with the higher caregiver burden were age-onset of epilepsy, PWE years of schooling, needs for assistance in daily life, disabilities, and caregiver's bad-quality of sleep and higher depressive and anxiety symptoms. CONCLUSION: Caregivers of PWE deserve special attention regarding mental health and other health aspects, such as sleep quality.

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OBJECTIVE: Juvenile myoclonic epilepsy (JME) is a subtype of genetically determined generalized epilepsy that does not present abnormalities on conventional magnetic resonance imaging. The aim of this study was to identify metabolic alterations in the thalamus in a clinically homogeneous sample of patients with easy-to-control JME, using short-echo time proton magnetic resonance spectroscopy (MRS). MATERIALS AND METHODS: We performed single-voxel (2 cm × 2 cm × 2 cm), short-echo time (TE = 35 ms) proton MRS of the thalamus in 21 patients with JME and in 14 healthy age-matched controls. We quantified N-acetylaspartate (NAA), total NAA, creatine (Cr), choline, and myo-inositol (MI), as well as the sum of glutamate and glutamine signals, all scaled to internal water content, and we calculated metabolite ratios using Cr as a reference. Values of p < 0.05 were considered significant. RESULTS: The MI level and the MI/Cr ratio were significantly lower in the thalami of patients diagnosed with JME than in those of the controls. Other metabolites and their ratios did not differ significantly between the two groups. CONCLUSION: In our sample of 21 JME patients, we identified lower levels of MI in the thalamus. No significant abnormalities were observed in the concentrations or ratios of other metabolites.

OBJETIVO: A epilepsia mioclônica juvenil (EMJ) é um dos subtipos da epilepsia generalizada geneticamente determinada que não apresenta alterações na ressonância magnética convencional. O objetivo deste estudo foi determinar se há alterações metabólicas no tálamo de pacientes com EMJ de fácil controle de uma amostra clinicamente homogênea utilizando espectroscopia de prótons por ressonância magnética (ERM) com tempo de eco curto. MATERIAIS E MÉTODOS: Nós realizamos ERM com voxel único (2 cm × 2 cm × 2 cm) e tempo de eco curto (TE = 35 ms) no tálamo de 21 pacientes com EMJ e 14 controles saudáveis pareados por idade. N-acetil-aspartato (NAA), NAA total, creatina (Cr), colina, mio-inositol (MI) e a soma de glutamato e glutamina foram quantificados em relação ao conteúdo de água interna e as razões dos metabólitos foram calculadas utilizando Cr como referência. Valor de p < 0,05 foi considerado como significante. RESULTADOS: Houve redução estatisticamente significante de MI e MI/Cr no tálamo dos pacientes diagnosticados como EMJ em relação aos controles. Outros metabólitos e suas razões não apresentaram alterações significantes. Conclusão: No tálamo do nosso grupo de 21 pacientes com EMJ foi observada redução de MI e da relação MI/Cr. Não foi observada diferença nos outros metabólitos ou suas relações.

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Abstract Objective: Juvenile myoclonic epilepsy (JME) is a subtype of genetically determined generalized epilepsy that does not present abnormalities on conventional magnetic resonance imaging. The aim of this study was to identify metabolic alterations in the thalamus in a clinically homogeneous sample of patients with easy-to-control JME, using short-echo time proton magnetic resonance spectroscopy (MRS). Materials and Methods: We performed single-voxel (2 cm × 2 cm × 2 cm), short-echo time (TE = 35 ms) proton MRS of the thalamus in 21 patients with JME and in 14 healthy age-matched controls. We quantified N-acetylaspartate (NAA), total NAA, creatine (Cr), choline, and myo-inositol (MI), as well as the sum of glutamate and glutamine signals, all scaled to internal water content, and we calculated metabolite ratios using Cr as a reference. Values of p < 0.05 were considered significant. Results: The MI level and the MI/Cr ratio were significantly lower in the thalami of patients diagnosed with JME than in those of the controls. Other metabolites and their ratios did not differ significantly between the two groups. Conclusion: In our sample of 21 JME patients, we identified lower levels of MI in the thalamus. No significant abnormalities were observed in the concentrations or ratios of other metabolites.

Resumo Objetivo: A epilepsia mioclônica juvenil (EMJ) é um dos subtipos da epilepsia generalizada geneticamente determinada que não apresenta alterações na ressonância magnética convencional. O objetivo deste estudo foi determinar se há alterações metabólicas no tálamo de pacientes com EMJ de fácil controle de uma amostra clinicamente homogênea utilizando espectroscopia de prótons por ressonância magnética (ERM) com tempo de eco curto. Materiais e Métodos: Nós realizamos ERM com voxel único (2 cm × 2 cm × 2 cm) e tempo de eco curto (TE = 35 ms) no tálamo de 21 pacientes com EMJ e 14 controles saudáveis pareados por idade. N-acetil-aspartato (NAA), NAA total, creatina (Cr), colina, mio-inositol (MI) e a soma de glutamato e glutamina foram quantificados em relação ao conteúdo de água interna e as razões dos metabólitos foram calculadas utilizando Cr como referência. Valor de p < 0,05 foi considerado como significante. Resultados: Houve redução estatisticamente significante de MI e MI/Cr no tálamo dos pacientes diagnosticados como EMJ em relação aos controles. Outros metabólitos e suas razões não apresentaram alterações significantes. Conclusão: No tálamo do nosso grupo de 21 pacientes com EMJ foi observada redução de MI e da relação MI/Cr. Não foi observada diferença nos outros metabólitos ou suas relações.

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The aim of this study was to analyze semantic and episodic memory deficits in children with mesial temporal sclerosis (MTS) and their correlation with clinical epilepsy variables. For this purpose, 19 consecutive children and adolescents with MTS (8 to 16 years old) were evaluated and their performance on five episodic memory tests (short- and long-term memory and learning) and four semantic memory tests was compared with that of 28 healthy volunteers. Patients performed worse on tests of immediate and delayed verbal episodic memory, visual episodic memory, verbal and visual learning, mental scanning for semantic clues, object naming, word definition, and repetition of sentences. Clinical variables such as early age at seizure onset, severity of epilepsy, and polytherapy impaired distinct types of memory. These data confirm that children with MTS have episodic memory deficits and add new information on semantic memory. The data also demonstrate that clinical variables contribute differently to episodic and semantic memory performance.

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OBJECTIVE: To examine cortical thickness and volumetric changes in the cortex of patients with polymicrogyria, using an automated image analysis algorithm. METHODS: Cortical thickness of patients with polymicrogyria was measured using magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) cortical surface-based analysis and compared with age- and sex-matched healthy subjects. We studied 3 patients with disorder of cortical development (DCD), classified as polymicrogyria, and 15 controls. Two experienced neuroradiologists performed a conventional visual assessment of the MRIs. The same data were analyzed using an automated algorithm for tissue segmentation and classification. Group and individual average maps of cortical thickness differences were produced by cortical surface-based statistical analysis. RESULTS: Patients with polymicrogyria showed increased thickness of the cortex in the same areas identified as abnormal by radiologists. We also identified a reduction in the volume and thickness of cortex within additional areas of apparently normal cortex relative to controls. CONCLUSIONS: Our findings indicate that there may be regions of reduced cortical thickness, which appear normal from radiological analysis, in the cortex of patients with polymicrogyria. This finding suggests that alterations in neuronal migration may have an impact in the cortical formation of the cortical areas that are visually normal. These areas are associated or occur concurrently with polymicrogyria.

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INTRODUÇÃO: Estudos neuropsicológicos sugerem que indivíduos com EMJ apresentam disfunção executiva além de maior impulsividade, refletindo uma disfunção de lobo frontal. Este estudo teve como objetivos verificar: 1. o desempenho e gravidade de comprometimento das funções executivas; 2. presença de traços de personalidade impulsivos; 3. a correlação entre o desempenho nas funções cognitivas e a expressão de traços de personalidade impulsivos e; 4. se as variáveis da epilepsia se correlacionam com as disfunções executivas e a um pior controle de impulsos. MÉTODOS: Foram avaliados 42 pacientes com EMJ e 42 sujeitos saudáveis pareados por idade, escolaridade e nível socioeconômico, através de bateria compreensiva de testes neuropsicológicos avaliadores de funções executivas e questionário padronizado de avaliação de traços de personalidade (ITC). RESULTADOS: Pacientes com EMJ tiveram pior desempenho nos testes de atenção imediata, seletiva e sustentada; controle mental e inibitório; flexibilidade mental; fluência verbal; formação de conceitos e manutenção de metas. A disfunção executiva foi moderada/grave em 83,33 por cento. Pacientes com EMJ apresentaram maior expressão dos traços de personalidade impulsivos. A disfunção executiva se correlacionou com o pior controle dos impulsos. Pacientes refratários apresentaram pior disfunção executiva e maior expressão de traços impulsivos. CONCLUSÕES: Nosso estudo demonstra a presença de disfunção atencional e executiva nos pacientes com EMJ, além da presença de traços de personalidade impulsivos. Além disso, verificamos a existência de dois grupos distintos de pacientes, sendo que pacientes mais refratários apresentam-se globalmente comprometidos. Estes achados sugerem que há uma necessidade de melhor caracterização fenotípica dos pacientes com EMJ a fim de incluir endofenótipos visto que nossos resultados demonstram uma possível existência de grupos distintos de pacientes com EMJ.

INTRODUCTION: Neuropsychological studies suggest that patients with JME have executive dysfunction and impulsiveness, reflecting a possible frontal lobe dysfunction. This study aimed to verify: 1. the performance and severity of attentional and executive functions; 2. presence of impulsive personality traits; 3. correlation between cognitive performance and the expressions of impulsive personality traits; 4. correlation between epilepsy variables and neuropsychological performance as well as worse impulse control. METHODS: We evaluated 42 patients with JME and a group of 42 control subjects, matched for age, education and socioeconomic status with a comprehensive battery of neuropsychological tests of attentional and executive functions and a standardized assessment of personality traits (TCI). RESULTS: Patients with JME showed worse performance than controls on tests of attentional span, working memory, inhibitory control, concept formation, maintenance of goals, and verbal fluency. Executive dysfunction was severe/moderate in 83.33 percent. Patients with JME showed higher expression of personality traits associated with an impaired impulse control. Attentional/executive dysfunction was correlated with poor impulse control. Refractory patients had worse executive dysfunction with an even a greater presence of impulsive personality traits. CONCLUSIONS: Our study demonstrates the presence of attentional and executive dysfunction in patients with JME, as well as the presence of impulsive personality traits. We also note the existence of two distinct groups of patients, were more refractory patients appear to present broader impairment. These findings suggest that there is a need for better phenotypic characterization of patients with JME to include diverse phenotypes since our results suggest a possible existence of distinct groups of patients with JME.

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OBJECTIVES: In adults with epilepsy it is well known that the epileptic syndrome, seizure frequency and antiepileptic drug use may influence sexual function and behavior. However, knowledge acquired with adult populations has been extrapolated to teenagers, based on the supposition that these patients are influenced by similar factors. This study aimed to evaluate aspects related to sexuality obtained from female adolescents with epilepsy. METHODS: We carried out a prospective study of 35 female adolescents, with epilepsy, with ages from 10 to 20 years, and epileptic syndromes diagnosed according to ILAE criteria (1989). Information on sexual function and behavior of adolescents with epilepsy was evaluated by use of a standard questionnaire. Exclusion criteria were lack of menarche, previous endocrine or chronic clinical disorders, and moderate to severe mental retardation. RESULTS: No differences were observed between the age at first sexual intercourse, sexual activity, libido and orgasm of adolescents with epilepsy when compared to controls. Epilepsy clinical variables such as age of onset, duration and severity had no significant relationship with distinct aspects of sexual function and behavior. CONCLUSION: Adolescents with epilepsy represent a special patient group because, even with their chronic disorder, they have an active sexual life, despite the severity of their disorder. Therefore, aspects related to sexuality require special attention by health professionals when attending to adolescents with epilepsy.

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Psychogenic nonepileptic seizures (PNES) are defined by episodes of abnormal movement, sensations, or cognitive experiences similar to epileptic seizures. These events, however, are not related to abnormal electrical brain discharges and are thought to be cause by a psychological process. Children appear to carry a lower risk for PNES compared to adults and yet this diagnosis maybe present in up to 10 percent of the pediatric patients. The main features of PNES in such age group is discussed.

Crises não-epilépticas psicogênicas (CNEP) são definidas como episódios de movimentos anormais, sensações ou experiências cognitivas similares a crises epilépticas. Estes eventos, contudo, não são relacionados a descargas elétricas cerebrais anormais e parecem estar associadas a processos de natureza psicológica. CNEP são menos freqüentes em crianças quando comparados a adultos, porém ainda assim este diagnóstico pode ser observado em 10 por cento da população de pacientes pediátricos. As principais características de CNEP nestes grupo etária são discutidas nesta revisão.

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OBJETIVO: Mulheres com epilepsia apresentam com maior freqüência alterações relacionadas à sexualidade. O conhecimento adquirido com as adultas tem sido usado para as adolescentes, pressupondo-se que elas também sofram influência semelhante. Este estudo teve como objetivo avaliar aspectos relacionados à sexualidade nas adolescentes com epilepsia. MÉTODOS: Foram estudadas 35 pacientes do sexo feminino, com epilepsia, com idades entre 10 a 20 anos. Os critérios de exclusão foram: pacientes que ainda não apresentaram a menarca, com doença crônica associada, ou deficiência mental moderada a grave. As informações sobre a função sexual das adolescentes foram avaliadas através de um questionário padrão. RESULTADOS: Não foi observada diferença entre a idade da primeira relação sexual, atividade sexual, libido e orgasmo entre as adolescentes com epilepsia e o grupo controle. Observaram-se índices de gravidez superiores entre as adolescentes com epilepsia. CONCLUSÃO: Adolescentes com epilepsia têm vida sexualmente ativa, não apresentando as mesmas disfunções que a mulher adulta. Nesta série, nós observamos freqüência elevada de gestação, sugerindo a falta de aconselhamento adequado. Os aspectos relacionados à sexualidade requerem atenção especial por parte dos profissionais de saúde que atendem adolescentes com epilepsia.

OBJECTIVES: Women with epilepsy have higher rates of sexual dysfunction. However, knowledge acquired with adult populations has been extrapolated to teenagers, by surmising that these patients are submitted to similar factors. This study aims to evaluate aspects related to sexuality in female adolescents with epilepsy. METHODS: We studied 35 female adolescents, with epilepsy, ages from 10 to 20 years. The criteria of exclusion were: patients that had not yet presented a first period, patients with previous endocrine or clinical chronic disorders, and patients with moderate to severe mental deficiency. Information on sexual behavior of adolescents with epilepsy was evaluated by use of a standard questionnaire. RESULTS: No differences were observed between age at first sexual intercourse, sexual activity, libido and orgasm of adolescents with epilepsy when compared to controls. Higher rates of pregnancy occurred in adolescents with epilepsy when compared to controls. CONCLUSION: Adolescents with epilepsy have an active sexual life, without the dysfunctions presented by adults. In this series, we observed high rates of pregnancy suggesting lack of proper counseling. Therefore, aspects related to sexuality require special attention by health professionals when attending to adolescents with epilepsy.

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A epilepsia, uma condição neurológica, apresenta uma freqüência elevada de transtornos psiquiátricos, em especial a depressão, que é a comorbidade psiquiátrica mais comum nesta população. Sabe-se que o transtorno depressivo pode comprometer muito mais a qualidade de vida de um paciente com epilepsia do que a gravidade da doença em si, daí a importância do seu diagnóstico. Entretanto, há poucos estudos sobre a prevalência e apresentação clínica da depressão nas crianças e adolescentes com epilepsia e nenhum sobre o seu tratamento. Este artigo tem como objetivo estudar as razões para o subdiagnóstico deste transtorno psiquiátrico e revisar as evidências para a ocorrência de possíveis mecanismos fisiopatológicos comuns. Para tal, revisamos estudos em modelos animais de epilepsia que demonstram uma diminuição de neurotransmissores implicados nos mecanismos patogênicos e tratamento da depressão Adicionalmente, estudamos as evidências oferecidas pelos estudos de neuroimagem e neuropsicológicos que corroboram a existência de uma disfunção das estruturas límbicas - frontais e temporais - nos pacientes com transtorno depressivo, que aparentemente também existe em pacientes com epilepsia. Portanto, este artigo de revisão dá evidência de que o conceito de relação causa-efeito para a ocorrência de depressão em pacientes com epilepsia precisa ser revisto.

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