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Objective: Undetected diabetes in pregnancy (DiP) can lead to deleterious consequences. Strengthening health systems and implementing national standardized protocols for screening and management can improve outcomes. This study aimed to achieve consensus on clinical guidelines and facilitate universal screening using standardized testing and an app. Design and Methodology: An integrated care model was developed and antenatal caregivers were trained on screening and management of DiP. A secure Information and Communication Technologies (ICT) solution for real-time communication of results was designed and piloted as the reporting system. The app provided automatic alerts to patients and doctors facilitating timely intervention and offered self-management tools. Pregnant women ≥ 18 years, n = 655 at two antenatal clinics in Trinidad (1 public and 1 private hospital) were screened using a standard 75g 2-hour oral glucose tolerance test (OGTT) after an overnight fast. Seven lab technologists and 24 doctors were trained to use the app. Cost-effectiveness was assessed. Results: National consensus was achieved with 197 antenatal caregivers, for universal screening for DiP. The app facilitated a reporting system of blood glucose results and delivered real-time SMS text and e-mail alerts to participants. 10.1% of participants had abnormal fasting glucose and 14.1% had at least one abnormal reading between 0hr to 2hrs. Universal screening for GDM was cost-effective in the local setting. Results: National consensus was achieved with 197 antenatal caregivers, for universal screening for DiP. The app facilitated a reporting system of blood glucose results and delivered real-time SMS text and e-mail alerts to participants. 10.1% of participants had abnormal fasting glucose and 14.1% had at least one abnormal reading between 0hr to 2hrs. Universal screening for GDM was cost-effective in the local setting. Conclusions: The high prevalence of DiP in T&T justifies the need for universal screening and related health systems change. Training healthcare teams in DiP screening and ICT-enabled management are essential elements of a standardized health system which features real-time reporting.

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ABSTRACT Objective: To determine the feasibility of recommending a screening process for non-communicable diseases (NCDs) and their risk factors, as a national and regional model. Methods: A cross-sectional, six-station process was carried out. It consisted of invitation and consent, history (personal and family history of NCDs), biometrics (waist circumference and body mass index), blood levels (lipids and glycosylated haemoglobin) and urinalysis (microalbuminuria), basic examinations (blood pressure, peripheral neuropathy, presence of acanthosis nigricans and visual acuity), and an exit interview. Net present value (NPV) calculations were carried out for very high-risk patients (those with a > 30% risk of a cardiovascular event (limb amputation) in the next 10 years) for two discount rates: 0.75% (United States of America) and 3.4% (Trinidad and Tobago). Results: A convenience sample of 514 walk-in patients (56.2% recruitment rate) was screened (about 23 patients per day). The median time for a patient attending all stations was 21 minutes (range: 11-59 minutes). Of the six stations, the laboratory took the longest: median 10 minutes (range: 2-50 minutes). The entire project cost US$20 439 (US$39.76 per patient). Between one and seven very high-risk patients (three sub-groups of patients had this risk profile) were identified. The cost of identifying a very high-risk patient ranged from US$2907 to US$20 349. The NPV of identifying these high-risk patients ranged from -US$6748.71 to US$14 725 and was favourable for three of four monetary scenarios. Conclusion: A six-station process to provide rapid screening of walk-in patients for NCDs was found to be feasible and provided monetary value in three of four scenarios in a Trinidad and Tobago setting.

RESUMEN Objetivo: Determinar la viabilidad de recomendar un proceso de cribado de las enfermedades no transmisibles (ENT) y sus factores de riesgo, como modelo nacional y regional. Métodos: Se realizó un proceso transversal de seis estaciones. El mismo consistió en invitación y consentimiento; historia (antecedentes personales y familiares de ENT); biometría (circunferencia de la cintura e índice de masa corporal); niveles sanguíneos (lípidos y hemoglobina glicosilada); y análisis de orina (microalbuminuria); exámenes básicos (presión arterial, neuropatía periférica, presencia de acantosis nigricans y agudeza visual); y una entrevista de salida. Se realizaron cálculos del valor actual neto (VAN) para pacientes de muy alto riesgo - pacientes con riesgo de un 30% de evento cardiovascular (amputación de extremidades) en los próximos 10 años - para dos tasas de descuento: 0.75% (Estados Unidos de América) y 3.4% (Trinidad y Tobago). Resultados: Una muestra de conveniencia de 514 pacientes ambulatorios (tasa de reclutamiento de 56.2%) fue sometida a pruebas de detección (unos 23 pacientes por día). El tiempo promedio para que un paciente asistiera a todas las estaciones fue de 21 minutos (rango: 11-59 minutos). De las seis estaciones, el laboratorio tomó el tiempo más largo: un promedio de 10 minutos (rango: 2-50 minutos). El proyecto entero costó $20 439 USD (39.76 USD por paciente). Entre uno y siete pacientes de muy alto riesgo (tres subgrupos de pacientes tenían este perfil de riesgo) fueron identificados. El costo de identificar a un paciente de muy alto riesgo osciló entre $2907 USD y $20 349 USD. El VAN de identificación de estos pacientes de alto riesgo fluctuó de $6748.71 a $14 725 USD, y fue favorable para tres de cuatro escenarios monetarios. Conclusión: Se halló que un proceso de seis estaciones para pruebas de detección rápidas de ENT a pacientes ambulatorios, es factible y proporciona valor monetario en tres de cuatro escenarios en un contexto de Trinidad y Tobago.

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Background. Dengue continues to pose a public health problem globally. Objective. To review factors associated with patients who died from dengue in Trinidad. Methods. A retrospective case note review of hospitalized patients who died during 2001 to 2010. Results. A total of 23 cases were identified: 13 males, 10 females-12 East Indians, 9 Africans, and 2 unknown. More than half (n = 17) were over 40 years of age with 10 being over 60 years of age; three were children. A falling platelet count was observed in 16 while 18 patients had a low normal haematocrit. There was a significant association of ethnicity, hypertension, and diabetes with length of hospital stay. Conclusions. The study sample included 10 patients over 60 years of age. Patients with diabetes and hypertension and patients of East Indian origin appeared to have a shorter hospital stay prior to death.

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OBJECTIVE: To review the characteristics of the patients who died from dengue in Trinidad to determine if there was any association between length of hospital stay, haematological parameters and ethnicity and any association with gender and the presence of co-morbidities. DESIGN AND METHODS: A descriptive study was undertaken via a review of case notes. Four major public hospitals were included in the study to locate patients who died from dengue between 2001 and 2010. RESULTS: The duration of hospital stay until death was characterised by a mode of 3 days and a median of 4 days. Eleven patients (47.8%) had a history of diabetes and 7 (30.4%) a history of hypertension recorded in the notes. A falling platelet count was observed in 69.5% of patients. A low normal haematocrit was observed in 78.2% of cases. Analyses did not reveal a significant association between length of hospital stay and platelet levels, nor with ethnicity; neither was a significant association found between gender and the presence of co- morbidities. CONCLUSION: Morbidity and mortality from dengue continue to pose a public health problem globally. Most patients had a history of diabetes with low platelets on admission, but low to normal haematocrit throughout their stay in hospital (mode 3 days). A prospective comparison study would better explore the significance of co- morbidities and the meaning of low to normal haematocrit levels.

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OBJECTIVE: To define the prevalence of diabetes mellitus (DM) in a cohort of Trinidadian chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD) patients, and investigate its relationship to lung function, quality of life, and depression. DESIGN AND METHODS: Anthropometric and spirometric data were obtained from 108 COPD (91 males) patients from Trinidad chest clinics, who also had HbA1c test results. Questionnaires on quality of life St. George’s Respiratory questionnaire ({SGRQ} and COPD Assessment Test {CAT}) and depression (Center for Epidemiologic Studies Depression Scale {CES-D & CESD-R}) were administered, and an interview conducted. RESULTS: Mean (SD) age: 67.4 (11.0) years. Median (IQR) HbA1c: 6.1 (5.7, 6.7) %. HbA1c values were obtained for 105 patients of whom 40% had diabetes, and 40% pre-diabetes. Diabetics had a greater (p=0.001) median (IQR) BMI [27.3 (24.1, 30.4)] than non-diabetics [24.2 (21.2, 27.2)]. Patients with at least one chest infection/exacerbation in the past year had increasing CAT & SGRQ Total (p<0.001), and CES-D & CESD-R (p≤0.013) scores. CAT and SGRQ total scores were negatively related to lung function and Global Initiative for Chronic Obstructive Lung Disease (GOLD) stages (p<0.001). All lung function parameters, except Forced expiratory volume/Forced vital capacity (FEV1/FVC), decreased with increasing CES-D and CESD-R scores (p<0.05). CAT & SGRQ correlated well with CES-D & CESD-R scores (p<0.001). Intravenous corticosteroid use was positively associated with HbA1c (p=0.043). Dosage of inhaled corticosteroids was associated with lower FEV1 (p=0.034) and higher SGRQ & CAT (p≤0.048). FVC % predicted was negatively related to HbA1c (p=0.033). CONCLUSION: The prevalence of DM in the COPD patients was 40%; however no significant correlations of DM to outcome measures were observed. Patients with worse quality of life due poor lung function were more depressed.

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OBJECTIVE: To determine the correlates of vigorous physical activity in adolescents in Trinidad. DESIGN AND METHODS: Adolescents (n = 344) between 11-15 years from five secondary schools in North-central Trinidad were cross-sectionally surveyed. Behavioural risk factors: alcohol and smoking use, physical activity and diet were obtained by a pilot tested interviewer administered questionnaire. In addition, anthropometric measures were obtained on site at school. Multivariate logistical regression was used to analyze correlates of vigorous physical activity by sex. RESULTS: Fruit and vegetable intake (p < 0.001) and religion (p = 0.034) were correlated with vigorous physical activity in females. Lower waist circumference (p = 0.014), age (p = 0.046) and diastolic blood pressure (p < 0.01) were correlated with vigorous physical activity in males. Body mass index (BMI) for age data indicated that 41.3% of the children were overweight or obese. However, vigorous physical activity did not correlate with BMI for age in either sex. In the final logistic regression models, higher vigorous physical activity was associated with lower diastolic blood pressure in males (p < 0.05) and an increased daily intake of fruit and vegetables in females (p < 0.001). CONCLUSION: Increased dietary intake of fruits and vegetables in females and lower diastolic blood pressure in males were associated with higher vigorous physical activity. Prospective studies are required to determine and clarify the relative importance of diet and physical activity in overweight adolescents and their risk of chronic metabolic disease.

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OBJECTIVES: To assess the relationship of homocysteine, hs-CRP, with known cardiovascular risk factors of the metabolic syndrome. METHOD: Cross sectional study comprised 182 diabetic outpatients (70 males and 112 females), attending endocrinology clinics in Trinidad. RESULTS: Both male and females showed significant linear relationships between high sensitive C-reactive protein (hs-CRP), blood pressure and diabetes (r = -0.2 < R or R > 0.2). In females hs-CRP showed significant linear relationship with HDL, triglyceride, blood pressure and diabetes mellitus (p < 0.0001). The inverse relationship of hs-CRP with HDL implies the strong association of hs-CRP with metabolic syndrome. The multivariate logistic regression analysis showed significant relation of hs-CRP, metabolic syndrome and diabetes mellitus. There was no significant relationship of tHCY to any of the features studied. CONCLUSION: Serum C-reactive protein is significantly related to features of the metabolic syndrome. Total plasma homocysteine, appears to be independent of both hs-CRP and features of the metabolic syndrome.

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OBJECTIVES: To describe periodontal disease status in diabetic patients in Trinidad. METHOD: A cross-sectional study was conducted. Patients attending a tertiary referral centre for diabetes at an out-patient clinic were invited to undergo oral examinations. The basic periodontal examination (BPE) was used to assess periodontal disease status. RESULTS: Seventy-two patients participated in the study. Mean age was 55.7 years, 54.2% were female, with 66.7% and 22.2% being of Indo-Trinidadian and Afro-Trinidadian ethnicity respectively. There were 61.1% who had not attended for dental treatment within the last year and 56.9% only attended when in pain; 15.3% had a history of cigarette smoking and 31.9% currently wore a denture. Plaque was detectable with the use of a probe in 40.3% of the 67% that underwent a BPE assessment; 38.8% were found to have advanced periodontal disease. CONCLUSION: The prevalence of periodontal disease in this sample of diabetic patients suggests that regular dental examinations, oral health education, and collaborative patient care between medical and dental practitioners should form part of the routine management of diabetic patients in Trinidad.

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OBJECTIVES: To describe periodontal disease status in diabetic patients in Trinidad. METHOD: A cross-sectional study was conducted. Patients attending a tertiary referral centre for diabetes at an out-patient clinic were invited to undergo oral examinations. The basic periodontal examination (BPE) was used to assess periodontal disease status. RESULTS: Seventy-two patients participated in the study. Mean age was 55.7 years, 54.2% were female, with 66.7% and 22.2% being of Indo-Trinidadian and Afro-Trinidadian ethnicity respectively. There were 61.1% who had not attended for dental treatment within the last year and 56.9% only attended when in pain; 15.3% had a history of cigarette smoking and 31.9% currently wore a denture. Plaque was detectable with the use of a probe in 40.3% of the 67% that underwent a BPE assessment; 38.8% were found to have advanced periodontal disease. CONCLUSION: The prevalence of periodontal disease in this sample of diabetic patients suggests that regular dental examinations, oral health education, and collaborative patient care between medical and dental practitioners should form part ofthe routine management ofdiabetic patients in Trinidad.

OBJETIVOS: Describir el estado de la enfermedad periodontal en los pacientes diabéticos en Trinidad. MÉTODO: Se llevó a cabo un estudio transversal. Un número de pacientes que asistían a un centro terciario de remisión terciario para la diabetes en una clínica ambulatoria, fue invitado a recibir exámenes orales. Se usó el examen periodontal básico (EPB) para evaluar el estado de la enfermedad periodontal. RESULTADOS: Setenta y dos pacientes participaron en el estudio. La edad promedio fue 55.7 años, 54.2% fueron hembras; 66.7% y 22.2% fueron de etnicidad indotrinitense y afrotrinitense respectivamente. Hubo un 61.1% que no habían asistido para recibir tratamiento dental en el último año, y 56.9% que sólo asistieron cuando tuvieron dolor; el 15.3% tenía una historia de hábito de fumar cigarrillos, y el 31.9% usaba una prótesis dental. La placa era detectable usando una sonda dental en el 40.3% del 67% que recibió la evaluación del EPB, en tanto que se halló que el 38.8% tenía la enfermedad periodontal en estado avanzado. CONCLUSIÓN: La prevalencia de la enfermedad periodontal en esta muestra de pacientes diabéticos indica que los exámenes dentales regulares, la educación para la salud oral, y el cuidado colaborativo entre pacientes y trabajadores de la salud dental, deben formar parte del manejo de los pacientes diabéticos en Trinidad.

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Over a four-year period, 26 consecutive patients with Guillain-Barré syndrome (GBS) were seen. Their ages ranged from 18 months to 68 years. Fifteen were male and 11 female. The crude annual incidence was estimated to be 1.5 per 100 000population. East Indians made up the majority of the patients. An antecedent infection was reported in 65% of patients. Significant pain was present in half of the cohort. F-wave abnormalities were the commonest electrophysiological disturbance. Twenty-nine per cent of patients required ventilation. Intravenous immunoglobulin (IVIG) treatment was beneficial in 88% of patients. Eighty-four per cent made a complete or near complete recovery. One patient died.

Por un periodo de cuatro años, se atendieron 26 pacientes consecutivos con el síndrome de Guillain- Barré (GBS). Sus edades fluctuaban de 18 meses a 68 años. Quince eran varones y 11 hembras. Se calculó que la incidencia anual bruta era 1.5 por 100 000 población. La mayor parte de los pacientes eran indo-orientales. El 65% de pacientes reportó antecedentes de infección. La mitad de la cohorte presentaba dolor significativo. El trastorno electrofisiológico más común fue las anormalidades de la onda F. Veintinueve por ciento de los pacientes necesitaron ventilación. El tratamiento de inmunoglobulina intravenosa (IVIG) fue beneficioso en 88% de los pacientes. Ochenta y cuatro por ciento tuvo una recuperación completa o casi completa. Un paciente murió.

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We would like to thank Professor Inge for his commentary and agree with most of the comments. It has been said that the first step of a journey is usually the most important and often the most difficult. This case was the first in our collective experience and provided an extraordinarily difficult therapeutic challenge. The risk/benefit ratio of bariatric surgery is well established in the morbidly obese adult and is under current investigation in teenagers. The decision to undertake a sleeve gastrectomy in one so young and with such debility as in the current case was the Aristotelian mean of cost, benefit, availability, feasibility, and accessibility of therapeutic options. We agree that our work with this child has just begun!

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Over a four-year period, 26 consecutive patients with Guillain-Barrd syndrome (GBS) were seen. Their ages ranged from 18 months to 68 years. Fifteen were male and 11 female. The crude annual incidence was estimated to be 1.5 per 100,000 population. East Indians made up the majority of the patients. An antecedent infection was reported in 65% of patients. Significant pain was present in halfofthe cohort. F-wave abnormalities were the commonest electrophysiological disturbance. Twenty-nine per cent of patients required ventilation. Intravenous immunoglobulin (IVIG) treatment was beneficial in 88% of patients. Eighty-four per cent made a complete or near complete recovery. One patient died.

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OBJECTIVE: To determine urinary fluoride levels in school children in a non-fluoridated area in Trinidad and Tobago. METHOD: Morning urine samples were requested from 750 children aged 5 to 14 years, attending a primary school in the area of St Joseph, north west Trinidad. Urine was collected at home and brought to school in labelled plastic bottles. Urinary fluoride concentration (ppm) was measured using an ion-specific electrode. RESULTS: Urine samples were available for 500 children (67). Mean age was 8.5 years. Overall mean fluoride concentration was 0.5 ppm +/- standard deviation (SD) 0.27; males (n = 263) were 0.58 ppm +/- 0.28 and females (n = 237) 0.55 ppm +/- 0.27. Children in the 5 to 7-year age group had the highest levels (0.64 ppm +/- 0.33). CONCLUSION: Mean urinary fluoride levels in this sample of school children were low indicating a fluoride intake below the optimum level for caries prevention. Fluoridation programmes may need to be implemented to increase fluoride intake among school children in the study area.

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OBJECTIVE: To determine urinary fluoride levels in school children in a non-fluoridated area in Trinidad and Tobago. METHOD: Morning urine samples were requested from 750 children aged 5 to 14 years, attending a primary school in the area of St Joseph, north west Trinidad. Urine was collected at home and brought to school in labelled plastic bottles. Urinary fluoride concentration (ppm) was measured using an ion-specific electrode. RESULTS: Urine samples were available for 500 children (67%). Mean age was 8.5 years. Overall mean fluoride concentration was 0.5 ppm +/- standard deviation (SD) 0.27; males (n = 263) were 0.58 ppm +/- 0.28 and females (n = 237) 0.55 ppm +/- 0.27. Children in the 5 to 7-year age group had the highest levels (0.64 ppm +/- 0.33). CONCLUSION: Mean urinary fluoride levels in this sample of school children were low indicating a fluoride intake below the optimum level for caries prevention. Fluoridation programmes may need to be implemented to increase fluoride intake among school children in the study area.

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Severe bacterial infection from a primary septic focus remote from the liver is accepted to be a cause of hepatic dysfunction. This may range from minor biochemical abnormality of standard liver function tests to fulminant hepatic failure. This report highlights a presentation with deep obstructive-type jaundice associated with profound bio-chemical changes suggestive of cholestatic hepatitis. There was no clinical indication of infection during the first 4 weeks and at admission. As a result, the absence of fever and leucocytosis was misleading. Halothane hepatitis was the working diagnosis until the sixth week when pelvic sepsis emerged as the possible cause. However, drainage of the abscess led to prompt clinical and biochemical resolution of jaundice so that it is unlikely that halothane exposure was a primary contributing cause. In addition, other common causes of jaundice were excluded by serological and sonographic screening. This case was an unusual case in which the cause of cholestatic jaundice occurred after a minor gynaecological operation commonly performed in developing countries (AU)

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The Dundee Ready Education Environment Measure (DREEM) was administered to 70 final-year medical students and 36 first-year medical interns (pre-registration house officers). The overall total mean DREEM scores for the five subscales--namely, students' perceptions of the atmosphere, students' perceptions of learning, students' social self-perceptions, students' perceptions of teachers and students' academic self-perceptions--was 109.9 and the total mean scores for the subgroups--male students, male interns, female students and female interns--were 103.39, 111.82, 111.33 and 113.15, respectively. The lowest scores were assigned to students' social self-perceptions and students' perceptions of the atmosphere. All of the participants except the male interns recorded the highest scores for the subscale academic self-perceptions.

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