RESUMO

Eutrophication of surface waters remains a major use-impairment in many countries, which, in fresh waters, is accelerated by phosphorus (P) inputs from both point (e.g., municipal waste water treatment plants) and nonpoint sources (e.g., urban and agricultural runoff). As point sources tend to be easier to identify and control, greater attention has recently focused on reducing nonpoint sources of P. In Brazil, agricultural productivity has increased tremendously over the last decade as a consequence, to a large extent, of increases in the use of fertilizer and improved land management. For instance, adoption of the 4R approach (i.e., right rate, right time, right source, and right placement of P) to fertilizer management can decrease P runoff. Additionally, practices that lessen the risk of runoff and erosion, such as reduced tillage and cover crops will also lessen P runoff. Despite these measures P can still be released from soil and fluvial sediment stores as a result of the prior 10 to 20 years management. These legacy sources can mask the water quality benefits of present-day conservation efforts. Future remedial efforts should focus on developing risk assessment indices and nonpoint source models to identify and target conservation measures and to estimate their relative effectiveness. New fertilizer formulations may more closely tailor the timing of nutrient release to plant needs and potentially decrease P runoff. Even so, it must be remembered that appropriate and timely inputs of fertilizers are needed to maintain agricultural productivity and in some cases, financial support might also be required to help offset the costs of expensive conservation measures.

Assuntos

RESUMO

Eutrophication of surface waters remains a major use-impairment in many countries, which, in fresh waters, is accelerated by phosphorus (P) inputs from both point (e.g., municipal waste water treatment plants) and nonpoint sources (e.g., urban and agricultural runoff). As point sources tend to be easier to identify and control, greater attention has recently focused on reducing nonpoint sources of P. In Brazil, agricultural productivity has increased tremendously over the last decade as a consequence, to a large extent, of increases in the use of fertilizer and improved land management. For instance, adoption of the 4R approach (i.e., right rate, right time, right source, and right placement of P) to fertilizer management can decrease P runoff. Additionally, practices that lessen the risk of runoff and erosion, such as reduced tillage and cover crops will also lessen P runoff. Despite these measures P can still be released from soil and fluvial sediment stores as a result of the prior 10 to 20 years management. These legacy sources can mask the water quality benefits of present-day conservation efforts. Future remedial efforts should focus on developing risk assessment indices and nonpoint source models to identify and target conservation measures and to estimate their relative effectiveness. New fertilizer formulations may more closely tailor the timing of nutrient release to plant needs and potentially decrease P runoff. Even so, it must be remembered that appropriate and timely inputs of fertilizers are needed to maintain agricultural productivity and in some cases, financial support might also be required to help offset the costs of expensive conservation measures.(AU)

Assuntos

RESUMO

Drainage ditches are a key conduit of nitrogen (N) from agricultural fields to surface water. The effect of ditch dredging, a common practice to improve drainage, on the fate of N in ditch effluent is not well understood. This study evaluated the effect of dredging on N transport in drainage ditches of the Delmarva Peninsula. Sediments from two ditches draining a single field were collected (0-5 cm) to represent conditions before and after dredging. Sediments were packed in 10-m-long recirculating flumes and subjected to a three-phase experiment to assess the sediment's role as a sink or source of ammonium (NH4) and nitrate (NO3). Under conditions of low initial NH4-N and NO3-N concentrations in flume water, sediment from the undredged ditch released 113 times more NO3-N to water than did sediment from the dredged ditch. When flume water was spiked with NH4-N and NO3-N to simulate increases in N concentrations from drainage and runoff from adjacent fields, NO3-N in flume water increased during 48 h compared with the initial spiked concentration, while NH4-N decreased. These simultaneous changes were attributed to nitrification, with 23% more NO3-N observed in flume water with undredged ditch sediment compared with dredged ditch sediment. Replacing the N-spiked water with deionized water resulted in two times more NO3-N released from the undredged ditch sediment than the dredged ditch sediment. These results suggest that ditch sediments could represent significant stores of N and that dredging could greatly affect the ditch sediment's ability to temporarily assimilate N input from field drainage.

Assuntos

RESUMO

Phosphorus runoff from agricultural fields amended with mineral fertilizers and manures has been linked to freshwater eutrophication. A rainfall simulation study was conducted to evaluate the effects of different rainfall intensities and P sources differing in water soluble P (WSP) concentration on P transport in runoff from soil trays packed with a Berks loam and grassed with annual ryegrass (Lolium multiflorum Lam.). Triple superphosphate (TSP; 79% WSP), low-grade super single phosphate (LGSSP; 50% WSP), North Carolina rock phosphate (NCRP; 0.5% WSP) and swine manure (SM; 70% WSP), were broadcast (100 kg total P ha-1) and rainfall applied at 25, 50 and 75 mm h-1 1, 7, 21, and 56 days after P source application. The concentration of dissolved reactive (DRP), particulate (PP), and total P (TP) was significantly (P<0.01) greater in runoff with a rainfall intensity of 75 than 25 mm h-1 for all P sources. Further, runoff DRP increased as P source WSP increased, with runoff from a 50 mm h-1 rain 1 day after source application having a DRP concentration of 0.25 mg L-1 for NCRP and 28.21 mg L-1 for TSP. In contrast, the proportion of runoff TP as PP was greater with low (39% PP for NCRP) than high WSP sources (4% PP for TSP) averaged for all rainfall intensities. The increased PP transport is attributed to the detachment and transport of undissolved P source particles during runoff. These results show that P source water solubility and rainfall intensity can influence P transport in runoff, which is important in evaluating the long-term risks of P source application on P transport in surface runoff.

Assuntos

RESUMO

Continual application of mineral fertilizer and manures to meet crop production goals has resulted in the buildup of soil P concentrations in many areas. A rainfall simulation study was conducted to evaluate the effect of the application of P sources differing in water-soluble P (WSP) concentration on P transport in runoff from two grassed and one no-till soil (2 m(2) plots). Triple superphosphate (TSP)-79% WSP, low-grade single superphosphate (LGSSP)-50% WSP, North Carolina rock phosphate (NCRP)-0.5% WSP, and swine manure (SM)-30% WSP, were broadcast (100 kg total P ha(-1)) and simulated rainfall (50 mm h(-1) for 30 min of runoff) applied 1, 7, 21, and 42 d after P source application. In the first rainfall event one d after fertilizer application, dissolved reactive P (DRP) and total P (TP) concentrations of runoff increased (P < 0.05) for all soils with an increase of source WSP; with DRP averaging 0.27, 0.50, 14.66, 41.69, and 90.47 mg L(-1); and total P averaging 0.34, 0.61, 19.05, 43.10, and 98.06 mg L(-1) for the control, NCRP, SM, LGSSP, and TSP, respectively. The loss of P in runoff decreased with time for TSP and SM, such that after 42 d, losses from TSP, SM, and LGSSP did not differ. These results support that P water solubility in P sources may be considered as an indicator of P loss potential.

Assuntos

RESUMO

Eutrophication has become a major threat to water quality in the U.S., Europe, and Australasia. In most cases, freshwater eutrophication is accelerated by increased inputs of phosphorus (P), of which agricultural runoff is now a major contributor, due to intensification of crop and animal production systems since the early 1990s'. Once little information is available on the impacts of Brazilian agriculture in water quality, recent changes in crop and animal production systems in Brazil were evaluated in the context of probable implications of the fate of P in agriculture. Between 1993 and 2003, there was 33% increase in the number of housed animals (i.e., beef, dairy cows, swine, and poultry), most in the South Region (i.e., Paraná, Rio Grande do Sul, and Santa Catarina States), where 43 and 49% of Brazil's swine and poultry production is located, respectively. Although grazing-based beef production is the major animal production system in Brazil, it is an extensive system, where manure is deposited over grazed pastures; confined swine and poultry are intensive systems, producing large amounts of manure in small areas, which can be considered a manageable resource. This discussion will focus on swine and poultry farming. Based on average swine (100 kg) and poultry weights (1.3 kg), daily manure production (4.90 and 0.055 kg per swine and poultry animal unit, respectively), and manure P content (40 and 24 g kg-1 for swine and poultry, respectively), an estimated 2.5 million tones of P in swine and poultry manure were produced in 2003. Mostly in the South and Southeast regions of Brazil (62%), which represent only 18% of the country's land area. In the context of crop P requirements, there was 2.6 times more P produced in manure (1.08 million tones) than applied as fertilizer (0.42 million tonnes) in South Brazil in 2003. If it is assumed that fertilizer P use represents P added to meet crop needs and accounts for P sorbed by soil in unavailable forms each year, if swine and poultry manure were to replace fertilizer, there would be an annual P surplus of 0.66 million tonnes in the South region alone. These approximations and estimates highlight that, similarly to other parts of the world, there is a potential for surplus P to quickly accumulate in certain regions of Brazil. Unless measures are developed and implemented to utilize manure P, repeated annual surpluses will create an increasingly difficult problem to solve. These measures can be grouped as source and transport management. Source management attempts to decrease dietary P, use feed additives, manure treatment and composting, as well as careful management of the rate, timing, and method of manure applications. Transport management attempts to control the loss of P in runoff from soil to sensitive waters via use of conservation tillage, buffer or riparian zones, cover crops, and trapping ponds or wetlands. These measures are discussed in the contest of Brazil's climate, topography, and land use, and how successful remediation programs may be implemented at farm and watershed level.

Eutrofização dos mananciais de água se tornou uma preocupação nos Estados Unidos, Europa e Austrália. Na maioria dos casos, a eutrofização de mananciais de água é acelerada pelo aumento na quantidade de fósforo adicionada, o que tem estreita relação com o escorrimento superficial deste elemento, em função da intensificação dos sistemas de produção de culturas e animais a partir do início dos anos noventa. Em virtude de pouca informação com relação aos impactos da agricultura na qualidade da água, este artigo enfatiza modificações nos sistemas de produção de culturas e animais no Brasil no contexto das prováveis implicações quanto ao destino do fósforo no processo. Os dados apontam para um aumento de 33% no número de animais (gado de corte, gado de leite, suíno e frango) no período de 1993 - 2003, a maior parte deste aumento ocorrendo na região sul (Paraná, Rio Grande do Sul e Santa Catarina), onde se localizam 43% e 49% da produção de suínos e frangos, respectivamente. Enquanto a produção de gado de corte se dá predominantemente em sistema de pastejo a campo, com deposição do esterco sobre os pastos, a produção de suíno e frango ocorre em sistema intensivo de confinamento, o que resulta em elevadas quantidades de esterco em pequenas áreas. Assim sendo, a discussão irá focalizar na produção de suínos e frangos. Tendo em vista o peso médio de suíno (100 kg) e frango (1,3 kg), a produção diária de esterco (4,90 e 0,055 kg por suíno ou frango, respectivamente), e o conteúdo médio de P no esterco (40 e 24 g kg-1 para suíno e frango, respectivamente), estimou-se uma quantidade de 2,5 milhões de toneladas de fósforo nos estercos de suíno e frango, produzidas no Brasil em 2003. A maior parte foi produzida nas regiões sul e sudeste do Brasil (62% em conjunto), a qual representa apenas 18% da área do país. No contexto da exigência das culturas, os cálculos apontam para 2,6 vezes mais fósforo produzido nos estercos (1,08 milhões de toneladas) do que aplicado por meio de fertilizante (0,42 milhões de toneladas) na região sul em 2003. Diante do fato que a quantidade utilizada por fertilizantes representa o necessário para atender as exigências nutricionais das plantas, levando inclusive em consideração o fósforo adsorvido pelo solo, se o esterco de suíno e frango fosse considerado no sentido de substituir os fertilizantes aplicados, haveria uma sobra anual de 0,66 milhões de toneladas apenas na região sul. Estas aproximações e estimativas claramente indicam que, como em outras partes do mundo, existe potencial para esta sobra anual de fósforo rapidamente acumular em certas regiões do Brasil. A menos que medidas sejam desenvolvidas e implementadas para utilizar este esterco, repetidas sobras anuais irão conduzir a um problema de difícil resolução. Estas medidas podem ser agrupadas em dois tipos: as do manejo das fontes e as do transporte. As medidas que visam o manejo das fontes tendem a diminuir as quantidades de fósforo na dieta, usar aditivos no alimento, promover o tratamento e compostagem do esterco, bem como manejar com cuidado as doses, época, e método de aplicação dos estercos. As medidas visando o manejo no transporte objetivam controlar a perda de fósforo no escorrimento do solo para os corpos de água por meio da conservação do solo e resíduos, zonas vegetativas ribeirinhas de contenção, culturas de cobertura superficial, e pontes de aprisionamento ou áreas alagadas. Estas medidas são discutidas no contexto do clima, topografia, uso do solo, e ainda quanto ao sucesso dos programas de remediação a serem implementados em fazendas ou bacias hidrográficas.

RESUMO

Eutrophication has become a major threat to water quality in the U.S., Europe, and Australasia. In most cases, freshwater eutrophication is accelerated by increased inputs of phosphorus (P), of which agricultural runoff is now a major contributor, due to intensification of crop and animal production systems since the early 1990s'. Once little information is available on the impacts of Brazilian agriculture in water quality, recent changes in crop and animal production systems in Brazil were evaluated in the context of probable implications of the fate of P in agriculture. Between 1993 and 2003, there was 33% increase in the number of housed animals (i.e., beef, dairy cows, swine, and poultry), most in the South Region (i.e., Paraná, Rio Grande do Sul, and Santa Catarina States), where 43 and 49% of Brazil's swine and poultry production is located, respectively. Although grazing-based beef production is the major animal production system in Brazil, it is an extensive system, where manure is deposited over grazed pastures; confined swine and poultry are intensive systems, producing large amounts of manure in small areas, which can be considered a manageable resource. This discussion will focus on swine and poultry farming. Based on average swine (100 kg) and poultry weights (1.3 kg), daily manure production (4.90 and 0.055 kg per swine and poultry animal unit, respectively), and manure P content (40 and 24 g kg-1 for swine and poultry, respectively), an estimated 2.5 million tones of P in swine and poultry manure were produced in 2003. Mostly in the South and Southeast regions of Brazil (62%), which represent only 18% of the country's land area. In the context of crop P requirements, there was 2.6 times more P produced in manure (1.08 million tones) than applied as fertilizer (0.42 million tonnes) in South Brazil in 2003. If it is assumed that fertilizer P use represents P added to meet crop needs and accounts for P sorbed by soil in unavailable forms each year, if swine and poultry manure were to replace fertilizer, there would be an annual P surplus of 0.66 million tonnes in the South region alone. These approximations and estimates highlight that, similarly to other parts of the world, there is a potential for surplus P to quickly accumulate in certain regions of Brazil. Unless measures are developed and implemented to utilize manure P, repeated annual surpluses will create an increasingly difficult problem to solve. These measures can be grouped as source and transport management. Source management attempts to decrease dietary P, use feed additives, manure treatment and composting, as well as careful management of the rate, timing, and method of manure applications. Transport management attempts to control the loss of P in runoff from soil to sensitive waters via use of conservation tillage, buffer or riparian zones, cover crops, and trapping ponds or wetlands. These measures are discussed in the contest of Brazil's climate, topography, and land use, and how successful remediation programs may be implemented at farm and watershed level.

Eutrofização dos mananciais de água se tornou uma preocupação nos Estados Unidos, Europa e Austrália. Na maioria dos casos, a eutrofização de mananciais de água é acelerada pelo aumento na quantidade de fósforo adicionada, o que tem estreita relação com o escorrimento superficial deste elemento, em função da intensificação dos sistemas de produção de culturas e animais a partir do início dos anos noventa. Em virtude de pouca informação com relação aos impactos da agricultura na qualidade da água, este artigo enfatiza modificações nos sistemas de produção de culturas e animais no Brasil no contexto das prováveis implicações quanto ao destino do fósforo no processo. Os dados apontam para um aumento de 33% no número de animais (gado de corte, gado de leite, suíno e frango) no período de 1993 - 2003, a maior parte deste aumento ocorrendo na região sul (Paraná, Rio Grande do Sul e Santa Catarina), onde se localizam 43% e 49% da produção de suínos e frangos, respectivamente. Enquanto a produção de gado de corte se dá predominantemente em sistema de pastejo a campo, com deposição do esterco sobre os pastos, a produção de suíno e frango ocorre em sistema intensivo de confinamento, o que resulta em elevadas quantidades de esterco em pequenas áreas. Assim sendo, a discussão irá focalizar na produção de suínos e frangos. Tendo em vista o peso médio de suíno (100 kg) e frango (1,3 kg), a produção diária de esterco (4,90 e 0,055 kg por suíno ou frango, respectivamente), e o conteúdo médio de P no esterco (40 e 24 g kg-1 para suíno e frango, respectivamente), estimou-se uma quantidade de 2,5 milhões de toneladas de fósforo nos estercos de suíno e frango, produzidas no Brasil em 2003. A maior parte foi produzida nas regiões sul e sudeste do Brasil (62% em conjunto), a qual representa apenas 18% da área do país. No contexto da exigência das culturas, os cálculos apontam para 2,6 vezes mais fósforo produzido nos estercos (1,08 milhões de toneladas) do que aplicado por meio de fertilizante (0,42 milhões de toneladas) na região sul em 2003. Diante do fato que a quantidade utilizada por fertilizantes representa o necessário para atender as exigências nutricionais das plantas, levando inclusive em consideração o fósforo adsorvido pelo solo, se o esterco de suíno e frango fosse considerado no sentido de substituir os fertilizantes aplicados, haveria uma sobra anual de 0,66 milhões de toneladas apenas na região sul. Estas aproximações e estimativas claramente indicam que, como em outras partes do mundo, existe potencial para esta sobra anual de fósforo rapidamente acumular em certas regiões do Brasil. A menos que medidas sejam desenvolvidas e implementadas para utilizar este esterco, repetidas sobras anuais irão conduzir a um problema de difícil resolução. Estas medidas podem ser agrupadas em dois tipos: as do manejo das fontes e as do transporte. As medidas que visam o manejo das fontes tendem a diminuir as quantidades de fósforo na dieta, usar aditivos no alimento, promover o tratamento e compostagem do esterco, bem como manejar com cuidado as doses, época, e método de aplicação dos estercos. As medidas visando o manejo no transporte objetivam controlar a perda de fósforo no escorrimento do solo para os corpos de água por meio da conservação do solo e resíduos, zonas vegetativas ribeirinhas de contenção, culturas de cobertura superficial, e pontes de aprisionamento ou áreas alagadas. Estas medidas são discutidas no contexto do clima, topografia, uso do solo, e ainda quanto ao sucesso dos programas de remediação a serem implementados em fazendas ou bacias hidrográficas.