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Pharmaceuticals are considered as contaminants of emerging concern, and their occurrence in diverse environmental matrices has been described during the last 25 years. Nonetheless, pharmaceutical occurrence has not been evenly described worldwide, and reports from some geographical areas such as most parts of Latin America are scarce. This work aims to address the situation of water pollution due to pharmaceuticals in Latin America by means of two main goals: i. First, reviewing the monitoring studies performed in Latin America on this topic (period 2009-2024), which were conducted in Brazil, Mexico, Colombia, Ecuador, Peru and Argentina, to highlight the most frequently detected compounds from each therapeutic group in the region. ii. Second, analyzing the case of Costa Rica through the hazard assessment and prioritization of pharmaceuticals based on the monitoring performed in this country (years 2011; 2018-2019). The monitoring in Costa Rica comprised a total of 163 sampling points: wastewater treatment plants (WWTPs) (14 urban WWTPs plus two landfill WWTPs; total samples n = 44 influents and n = 34 effluents), nine hospital effluents (n = 32), wastewater from livestock farms (six swine farms and seven dairy farms; n = 23 influents and n = 37 effluents), 64 continental surface water sampling points (n = 137), and 61 coastal seawater sampling points (n = 61). Risk assessment of detected concentrations by the hazard quotient (HQ) approach (period 2018-2019) revealed a total of 25 medium or high-hazard compounds (out of 37 detected compounds). The prioritization approach (which included the Frequency of Appearance (FoA), the Frequency of PNEC exceedance (FoE), and the Extent of predicted no-effect concentration (PNEC) exceedance (EoE)), showed a critical list of nine pharmaceuticals: caffeine, diphenhydramine, acetaminophen, lovastatin, gemfibrozil, ciprofloxacin, ibuprofen, doxycycline and norfloxacin. These compounds should be taken into account as a first concern during the implementation of environmental policies related to pharmaceutical products in the region.

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Pellet production represents a critical step for several processes requiring fungal biomass, nevertheless, its optimization is seldom reported. The use of finely ground rice husk as a microcarrier and co-substrate permitted a marked increase (≈ 2.7×) in the productivity of fungal pellet production using Trametes versicolor compared to traditional production methods. The pellets show similar structure and smaller size compared to typical sole-mycelium pellets, as well as comparable laccase activity. The efficiency of the pellets for biodegradation was confirmed by the removal of the crystal violet dye, achieving significantly faster decolorization rates compared to the traditionally produced pellets. The use of these pellets during the continuous treatment of the dye in a stirred tank bioreactor resulted in 97% decolorization operating at a hydraulic residence time of 4.5 d.

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The effects of fluoxetine (antidepressant) and ketoprofen (analgesic) on aquatic ecosystems are largely unknown, particularly as a mixture. This work aimed at determining the effect of sublethal concentrations of both compounds individually (0.050 mg/L) and their mixture (0.025 mg/L each) on aquatic communities at a microcosm scale for a period of 14 d. Several physicochemical parameters were monitored to estimate functional alterations in the ecosystem, while model organisms (Daphnia magna, Lemna sp., Raphidocelis subcapitata) and the sequencing of 16S/18S rRNA genes permitted to determine effects on specific populations and changes in community composition, respectively. Disturbances were more clearly observed after 14 d, and overall, the microcosms containing fluoxetine (alone or in combination with ketoprofen) produced larger alterations on most physicochemical and biological variables, compared to the microcosm containing only ketoprofen, which suffered less severe changes. Differences in nitrogen species suggest alterations in the N-cycle due to the presence of fluoxetine; similarly, all pharmaceutical-containing systems decreased the brood rate of D. magna, while individual compounds inhibited the growth of Lemna sp. No clear trends were observed regarding R. subcapitata, as indirectly determined by chlorophyll quantification. The structure of micro-eukaryotic communities was altered in the fluoxetine-containing systems, whereas the structure of bacterial communities was affected to a greater extent by the mixture. The disruptions to the equilibrium of the microcosm demonstrate the ecological risk these compounds pose to aquatic ecosystems.

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Pharmaceuticals comprise a complex group of emerging pollutants. Despite the significant number of pharmaceuticals used in veterinary medicine, the input of these compounds into the environment due to livestock activities has been scarcely described. This work assays for the first time in Central America the occurrence of pharmaceuticals in farm wastewater in an area devoted to dairy production, and in the surrounding surface waters. Among 69 monitored pharmaceuticals, a total of eight compounds were detected in wastewater samples collected from seven dairy farms after three sampling campaigns. Six pharmaceuticals were considered either of high (albendazole, lovastatin and caffeine) or intermediate estimated hazard (ciprofloxacin, acetaminophen and ketoprofen) based on the HQ approach, while 26% of the samples were considered of high estimated hazard according to the cumulative ∑HQ approach. Similarly, when ecotoxicological tests were applied, all the samples showed some level of toxicity towards Daphnia magna, and most samples towards Vibrio fischeri and Lactuca sativa. Fourteen pharmaceuticals were detected in surface water samples collected in the surroundings of the dairy production farms, including rural and urban areas. Seven out of these compounds showed high estimated risk (risperidone, diphenhydramine, trimethoprim, fluoxetine, ofloxacin, caffeine and ibuprofen), while three (gemfibrozil, ciprofloxacin and cephalexin) exhibited intermediate estimated risk. In a similar worrisome way, 27% of these samples were estimated to pose high environmental risk according to the pharmaceutical content. Despite being nontoxic for D. magna or V. fischeri, frequent inhibition (>20%) of GI in L. sativa was determined in 34% of surface water samples; such findings raise concern on the apparent inceptive environmental pollution and risk within the area. According to the pharmaceutical content patterns in both kinds of studied matrices, no clear evidence of significant contamination in surface water due to livestock activities could be retrieved, suggesting a main role of urban influence.

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The biopurification systems (BPS) or biobeds are employed for the treatment of pesticide-containing wastewater of agricultural origin. The use of these devices for pesticide removal requires the proper optimization of the composition of biomixtures (BPS active matrix) according to the target pesticides applied on a specific crop and the available materials used in their elaboration. This work aims to design a biomixture for the simultaneous treatment of several pesticides applied in coffee crops, according to local practices in Costa Rica. Three biomixtures containing either coffee husk, coconut fiber or rice husk (as the lignocellulosic substrate) were applied for the removal of 12 pesticides. The profiles of pesticide elimination and the mineralization of radiolabeled chlorpyrifos (14C-chlorpyrifos) revealed that the best performance was achieved with the coconut fiber biomixture, even though similar detoxification patterns were determined in every biomixture (according to immobilization in Daphnia magna and germination tests in Lactuca sativa). The optimization of this biomixture's composition by means of a central composite design permitted the definition of two optimal compositions (compost:soil:coconut fiber, % v/v) that maximized pesticide removal: i. 29:7.3:63.7 and ii. 11:7.3:81.7. The validation of these optimized compositions also included the use of an alternative soil from another coffee farm and resulted in overall DT50 values of 7.8-9.0 d for the pesticide mixture. Considering the removal kinetics in the optimized biomixture, a 1 m3 BPS prototype was dimensioned to be eventually used in local coffee farms. This work provides relevant information for the design and implementation of BPS at on-farm conditions for the treatment of pesticide-containing wastewater of a major crop.

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Animal husbandry wastewaters represent an important source of pharmaceuticals into the environment. This work aimed to evaluate the occurrence of pharmaceuticals and their hazard in wastewater from a model dairy farm from Costa Rica. Among the seven pharmaceuticals detected (acetaminophen, caffeine, carbamazepine, ibuprofen, ketoprofen, risperidone, sulfamethazine), caffeine, ibuprofen and acetaminophen showed the highest concentrations, while caffeine, carbamazepine and risperidone were the most frequently detected compounds. High (HQ ≥ 1) or medium (0.1 ≤ HQ < 1) hazard were estimated for three (caffeine, ibuprofen, risperidone) and two (acetaminophen, ketoprofen) pharmaceuticals, respectively; similarly, high overall hazard (∑HQ) and significant ecotoxicity were determined in samples from all sampling points. According to our results, the release of these aqueous matrices is a matter of environmental concern, as the treated wastewater is used for farm irrigation or directly released into nearby water streams. This work contributes to the knowledge on the scarcely described occurrence and risk of pharmaceuticals in Latin American regions.

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This work aims to determine the occurrence, hazard and prioritization of pharmaceuticals from hospital wastewater in Costa Rica through the monitoring of 70 compounds and assessing their environmental risk through a hazard quotient approach (HQ). Moreover, the quantification of selected antibiotic resistance genes (ARGs) was conducted for the first time in this matrix in this geographical location. Thirty-four pharmaceuticals were detected, being caffeine, 1,7-dimethylxanthine, acetaminophen, ibuprofen, naproxen, ciprofloxacin and ketoprofen the most frequent (>50% of the samples). Eighteen pharmaceuticals exhibited high hazard (HQ ≥ 1), while five more showed medium hazard (1 > HQ ≥ 0.1). Prioritization, which also included frequency parameters, revealed caffeine, lovastatin, diphenhydramine, acetaminophen, ibuprofen, ciprofloxacin, and sildenafil as the compounds of major concern. Similarly, cumulative hazard per sample (ΣHQ) estimated high hazard towards aquatic organisms in every sample. All selected ARGs, except mcr-1 (polymyxin resistance), were detected. Among genes conferring resistance to beta-lactams, blaCTX-M and blaKPC were the most abundant, related to resistance to cephalosporins and carbapenems. Ecotoxicological evaluation showed mostly low toxicity towards Daphnia magna and Vibrio fischeri, contrary to the marked effect observed towards Lactuca sativa. These findings provide relevant and novel information on the risk posed by hospital wastewater and their pharmaceutical content in the Latin American environmental context.

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Despite their environmental implications, ecotoxicological information regarding pesticide mixtures is relatively scarce. This study aimed to determine the ecotoxicity of individual pesticide formulations and their mixtures (insecticides and fungicides), which are applied during the production cycle of potato, according to agricultural practices from a Latin American region in Costa Rica. Two benchmark organisms were employed: Daphnia magna and Lactuca sativa. First, the evaluation of individual formulations (chlorothalonil, propineb, deltamethrin+imidacloprid, ziram, thiocyclam and chlorpyrifos) revealed differences between available EC50 for active ingredients (a.i.) and their respective formulations toward D. magna; on the contrary, no information could be retrieved from scientific literature for comparison in the case of L. sativa. In general, acute toxicity was higher toward D. magna than L. sativa. Moreover, interactions could not be determined on L. sativa, as the chlorothalonil formulation was not toxic at high levels and the concentration-response to propineb could not be fitted to obtain an IC50 value. The commercial formulation composed of deltamethrin+imidacloprid followed the concentration addition model (when compared with parameters retrieved from individual a.i.) and the other three mixtures evaluated (I: chlorothalonil-propineb-deltamethrin+imidacloprid; II: chlorothalonil-propineb-ziram-thiocyclam; III: chlorothalonil-propineb-chlorpyrifos) produced an antagonistic effect on D. magna, thus suggesting less acute toxicity than their individual components. Subsequent chronic studies showed that one of the most toxic mixtures (II) negatively affected D. magna reproduction at sublethal concentrations indicating that this mixture poses a risk to this species if these pesticides co-exist in freshwater systems. These findings provide useful data to better estimate the impact of real agricultural practices related to the use of agrochemicals.

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Objetivo: Describir las características epidemiológicas y clínicas de los pacientes con leucemia linfocítica aguda atendidos en el Hospital Nacional de Niños "Dr. Carlos Sáenz Herrera", que recibieron radioterapia externa, durante el periodo de enero de 2009 a diciembre de 2017. Métodos: Estudio observacional, descriptivo. Se revisaron retrospectivamente los expedientes clínicos de pacientes pediátricos (0-13 años) con leucemia linfocítica aguda, que recibieron radioterapia externa en el periodo mencionado. Se aplicó un análisis estadístico descriptivo de las variables cualitativas y cuantitativas. Resultados: Se analizó un total de 58 pacientes, de estos el 79,3% fueron hombres. La edad promedio fue de 7,3 años. El 84,2% fueron clasificados como L1, 84,2% con inmunofenotipo B común y el 56,9% eran grupo de alto riesgo al diagnóstico. La principal indicación de radioterapia fue recaída (67,7%). Aproximadamente la mitad se irradió a sistema nervioso central y la otra mitad a testículos. Los principales efectos adversos fueron cutáneos. Conclusiones: Los resultados obtenidos fueron comparables con los reportados en la literatura. La radioterapia es importante en el tratamiento de leucemias, especialmente en pacientes de recaída y de alto riesgo.

Aim: To describe the epidemiological and clinical characteristics of patients with acute lymphocytic leukemia, attended at the National Children´s Hospital "Dr. Carlos Sáenz Herrera" that received external radiation therapy between January 2009 and December 2017. Methods: It is an observational, descriptive study. Clinical records of pediatric patients (0-13 years) with acute lymphoblastic leukemia that received external radiotherapy in the study period were retrospectively reviewed. A descriptive statistical analysis of the qualitative and quantitative variables was applied. Results: 58 patients were studied, 79,3% were males. The mean age was 7,3 years. 84,2% were classified as L1, 84,2% had common B immunophenotype and 56,9% were in the high risk group at diagnosis. The main indication for radiotherapy was relapse (67,7%). About half the patients received radiotherapy to central nervous system and the other half to testicles. The main side effects were cutaneous. Conclusions: The results obtained were comparable to those seen in literature. Radiotherapy is important in leukemia treatment, particularly in relapse and high risk patients.

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Plants represent uncommon targets to evaluate pharmaceuticals toxicity. In this work, Lemna minor was employed as a plant model to determine the toxicity of selected pharmaceuticals, and to assay if such toxicity could be predicted by QSAR models based on green algae. Among eight compounds, measurable toxicity was determined for ketoprofen (EC50 = 11.8 ± 1.9 mg/L), fluoxetine (EC50 = 27.0 ± 8.7 mg/L) and clindamycin 2-phosphate (EC50 = 57.7 ± 1.7 mg/L). Even though a correlation of r2 = 0.87 was observed between experimental toxicity towards algae and L. minor, QSAR estimations based on algae data poorly predicted the toxicity of pharmaceuticals on the plant. More experimental data for L. minor are necessary to determine the applicability of these predictions; nonetheless, these results remark the importance of measuring experimental ecotoxicological parameters for individual taxa. The toxicity of pharmaceutical binary mixtures (ketoprofen, fluoxetine and clindamycin) revealed in some cases deviations from the concentration addition model; nonetheless these deviations were small, thus the interactions are unlikely to be of severe biological significance. Moreover, the EC50 concentrations determined for these pharmaceuticals are significantly higher than those detected in the environment, suggesting that acute effects on L. minor would not take place at ecosystem level.

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Background: This work studied the use of the organic fertilizers DTPA-Fe and EDDS-Fe as iron chelates for solar driven photo-Fenton process at natural pH. This process was proposed to investigate its performance on removing a mixture of agrochemicals (propiconazole, imidacloprid and diuron) from pineapple processing wastewater to obtain a suitable effluent to be reused in the agricultural sector. Methods: Experiments were carried out in a solar simulator with a stirred cylindric photoreactor, with a volume of 150 mL and controlled temperature (20°C). The first set of experiments was carried out with ultrapure water to determine optimal iron and H 2O 2 concentrations. The second was performed with simulated wastewater of pineapple processing. Results: The optimized operational conditions for both iron complexes were 10 mg L -1 of Fe (III) and 25 mg L -1 of H 2O 2, since more than 80% of micropollutants (MP) (at an initial concentration of 1 mg L -1 of each compound) were removed in only 20 min with both DTPA-Fe and EDDS-Fe. The effect of organic matter and inorganic salts on radicals scavenging and chelates stability was also investigated in the experiments performed with synthetic pineapple processing wastewater. The results disclosed differences depending on the iron complex. Nitrites were the principal component influencing the tests carried out with EDDS-Fe. While carbonates at low concentration only significantly affected the experiments performed with DTPA-Fe, they were the major influence on the MPs removal efficiency decrease. In contrast, the presence of Ca 2+ and Mg 2+ only influence on this last one. Finally, the results of phytotoxicity disclosed the suitability of treated effluent to be reused in the agricultural sector.  Conclusions: This work demonstrated that solar powered photo-Fenton catalysed by iron fertilizer EDDS is a suitable technology for depolluting water streams coming from pineapple processing plants at circumneutral pH, and its subsequent reuse for crop irrigation.

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Resumen Objetivo: Determinar las características epidemiológicas, clínicas y terapéuticas de los pacientes con enfermedad oncológica atendidos en el Hospital Nacional de Niños "Dr. Carlos Sáenz Herrera", que recibieron radioterapia externa, durante el periodo de enero de 2015 a diciembre de 2016. Métodos: Estudio observacional, descriptivo, de una serie de casos de pacientes pediátricos con diagnóstico oncológico, que recibieron radioterapia y fueron atendidos durante un periodo de 2 años. Se revisaron los expedientes clínicos para la obtención de los datos de manera retrospectiva, de acuerdo con las variables de interés. Se registraron datos demográficos, el tipo de tumor, el sitio anatómico irradiado, la necesidad de anestesia y el tiempo de espera. Se aplicó un análisis descriptivo de las variables cualitativas y cuantitativas. Resultados: Se analizaron un total de 117 pacientes quienes recibieron radioterapia, de los cuales un 59.0% fueron hombres. La edad promedio fue de 7,7 años. Las leucemias y el grupo de los tumores cerebrales fueron los tipos de tumores más frecuentemente irradiados; siendo el sistema nervioso central el sitio anatómico más tratado, en 56 pacientes (40.6%). La radioterapia curativa fue más frecuente que la paliativa. En 34 pacientes (29.1%) se requirió de anestesia. Todos los pacientes tuvieron que esperar para el inicio de su tratamiento y en una minoría se registró el motivo en relación con una condición no clínica del paciente. Conclusiones: En oncología pediátrica, la radioterapia es una modalidad de tratamiento utilizada mayoritariamente con carácter curativo en pacientes de diferentes edades y ambos sexos, principalmente con diagnóstico de tumores cerebrales y leucemia; algunos pacientes de corta edad pueden requerir anestesia durante el tratamiento. En una minoría de pacientes, se atribuyó a factores no clínicos el tiempo de espera para el inicio de su tratamiento.

Abstract Aim: To determine the epidemiological, clinical and therapeutic characteristics of patients with oncological disease treated at the Hospital Nacional de Niños "Dr. Carlos Sáenz Herrera", who received external radiotherapy, during the period from January 2015 to December 2016. Methods: It is an observational, descriptive study of a series of cases of pediatric patients with an oncologic diagnosis, who received radiotherapy and were treated for a period of 2 years. Clinical records were reviewed to obtain the data retrospectively, according to the variables of interest. Demographic data, tumor type, anatomical site irradiated, need for anesthesia, and waiting time were recorded. A descriptive analysis of the qualitative and quantitative variables was applied. Results: A total of 117 patients who received radiotherapy were analyzed, of which 59.0% were men. The average age was 7.7 years. Leukemias and the group of brain tumors were the most frequently irradiated tumor types; being the central nervous system the most treated anatomical site, in 56 patients (40.6%). Curative radiotherapy was more frequent than palliative. In 34 patients (29.1%) anesthesia was required. All patients had to wait for the start of their treatment and in a minority the reason was recorded in relation to a non-clinical condition of the patient. Conclusión: In pediatric oncology, radiotherapy is a treatment modality used predomi- nantly for curative purposes in patients of different ages and both sexes, most commonly with brain tumors and leukemia; some young patients may require anesthesia during treatment. In a minority of patients, the waiting time for the start of their treatment was attributed to non-clinical factors.

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Resumen Justificación: La radioterapia es esencial para el tratamiento del cáncer pediátrico. Al menos la mitad de los niños que requieren radioterapia van a necesitar sedación o anestesia. Es importante conocer las complicaciones potenciales asociadas con el uso repetitivo de medicamentos sedantes o anestésicos. El objetivo del estudio fue describir las características clínicas y epidemiológicas de los pacientes con diagnóstico de cáncer del Hospital Nacional de Niños "Dr. Carlos Sáenz Herrera", de la Caja Costarricense de Seguro Social, que recibieron sedación o anestesia durante su tratamiento con radioterapia externa en el período de enero del 2016 a junio del 2019. Métodos: Es un estudio observacional, descriptivo y retrospectivo de una serie de casos. Se incluyeron pacientes pediátricos con diagnóstico de cáncer, sometidos a tratamiento con radioterapia y que requirieron sedación o anestesia durante esa intervención. Las técnicas estadísticas utilizadas para las variables cualitativas fueron tablas de frecuencias simples y de asociación o contingencia; las variables cuantitativas se describen mediante estadígrafos de tendencia central y posición, así como de variabilidad. Resultados: Un total de 61 pacientes con diagnóstico de cáncer y que recibieron radioterapia fueron estudiados. El 57,4% de los pacientes fueron hombres. El 75% de los pacientes tenía 4,0 años o menos. La localización anatómica más frecuente del tumor fue en sistema nervioso central. Una minoría (14,5%) recibió como tratamiento único la radioterapia. El 75% de los pacientes recibió 30 o menos sesiones de tratamiento bajo sedación o anestesia. El propofol se suministró al 100,0% de los pacientes en todas las sesiones de tratamiento. El tiempo promedio de sedación o anestesia fue de 67,9 ± 28,2 minutos. El 34,4% de los pacientes presentaron complicaciones respiratorias, cardiovasculares o ambas, en al menos una sesión de tratamiento. Conclusiones: En los pacientes pediátricos con cáncer quienes reciben tratamiento con radioterapia, fue requerido el uso de la sedación y anestesia principalmente en niños de corta edad; en general, las complicaciones de la radioterapia fueron transitorias y usualmente bien toleradas, sin presentar morbimortalidad. Como monoterapia, el Propofol no mostró complicaciones asociadas; sin embargo, al adicionar otros fármacos sí se observaron complicaciones respiratorias y predominó la desaturación transitoria de oxígeno.

Abstract Background: Radiation therapy is essential for the treatment of pediatric cancer. At least half of the children who require radiation therapy will need sedation or anesthesia. It is important to know the potential complications associated with repetitive use of sedative or anesthetic medications. The objective of the study was to describe the clinical and epidemiological characteristics of patients diagnosed with cancer at the National Children's Hospital "Dr. Carlos Sáenz Herrera" of the Costa Rican Social Security Fund, who received sedation or anesthesia during their treatment with external radiotherapy in the period from January 2016 to June 2019. Methods: It is an observational, descriptive and retrospective study of a series of cases. Pediatric patients diagnosed with cancer, who underwent radiotherapy treatment and who required sedation or anesthesia during that intervention were included. The statistical techniques used for the qualitative variables were simple frequency tables and association or contingency tables; quantitative variables are described using central tendency and position statistics, as well as variability. Results: A total of 61 patients diagnosed with cancer and receiving radiotherapy were studied. 57.4% of the patients were men. 75% of patients were 4.0 years or younger. The most frequent anatomic location of the tumor was in the central nervous system. A minority (14.5%) received radiotherapy as the only treatment. 75% of patients received 30 or fewer treatment sessions under sedation or anesthesia. Propofol was administered to 100.0% of patients in all treatment sessions. The average sedation or anesthesia time was 67.9 ± 28.2 minutes. 34.4% of the patients presented respiratory or cardiovascular complications, or both, in at least onetreatment session. Conclusions: In pediatric patients diagnosed with cancer, the use of sedation and anesthesia during radiotherapy treatment was required mainly in young children and in moderate frequency, the complications of the radiation therapy were temporary and usually well tolerated, without presenting morbidity and mortality. Propofol as monotherapy turned out to have no associated complications, however, when other drugs were added, adverse effects were observed in respiratory system, the most frequent being transient oxygen desaturation.

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Many small parasitoid wasps have a black head, an orange mesosoma and a black metasoma (BOB color pattern), which is usually present in both sexes. A likely function of this widespread pattern is aposematic (warning) coloration, but this has never been investigated. To test this hypothesis, we presented spider predators (Lyssomanes jemineus), both field-captured and bred in captivity from eggs, to four wasp genera (Baryconus, Chromoteleia, Macroteleia and Scelio), each genus being represented by a BOB morphospecies and black morphospecies. We also used false prey, consisting of lures made of painted rice grains. Behavioral responses were analyzed with respect to presence or absence of the BOB pattern. In order to better understand the results obtained, two additional studies were performed. First, the reflection spectrum of the cuticle of the wasp and a theoretical visual sensibility of the spider were used to calculate a parameter we called "absorption contrast" that allows comparing the perception contrast between black and orange in each wasp genus as viewed by the spider. Second, acute toxicity trials with the water flea, Daphnia magna, were performed to determine toxicity differences between BOB and non-BOB wasps. At least some of the results suggest that the BOB color pattern may possibly play an aposematic role.

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The presence of pharmaceuticals in the environment is known to have multiple origins; livestock activities comprise one scarcely studied source, both globally and specially in Latin-America. This work aims to study the occurrence of pharmaceuticals in wastewater from swine farms and their surrounding surface waters, in a highland livestock production area of Costa Rica. The monitoring of 70 pharmaceutical active compounds resulted in the detection of 10 molecules in farm wastewater (influents and effluents of the on-farm treatment system), including compounds of animal and human use. A 57% of effluents showed high hazard (ΣHQ > 1), mainly due to the compounds risperidone, ketoprofen, ibuprofen and naproxen. Additionally, ecotoxicological tests with Daphnia magna and Microtox classified at least 21% of the effluents as very toxic (10 < TU ≤ 100); likewise, 86% of effluents exhibited germination index (GI) inhibition values over 90% for Lactuca sativa. Seven molecules were detected in surface water, six of them of human use (1,7-dimethylxanthine, caffeine, cephalexin, carbamazepine, gemfibrozil, ibuprofen) and one (acetaminophen) of dual (human and veterinary) use; nonetheless, most of the detections were found in sampling points closer to human settlements than animal farms. Considering the set of molecules and their distribution, the livestock influence on surface water seems minimal in comparison with the urban influence. Only 16% of surface water samples showed high risk, mainly due to ibuprofen, gemfibrozil and caffeine; similarly, 45% samples presented GI inhibition >20% (no toxicity was determined towards Daphnia magna or Microtox). These findings in surface water suggest an incipient environmental risk in the area.

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Resumen Justificación: El tumor de Wilms es el tumor renal maligno más frecuente en pediatría. El manejo terapéutico sigue el principio oncológico de curar la enfermedad mediante cirugía, quimioterapia y radioterapia. Se busca minimizar la toxicidad de los tratamientos. El objetivo del estudio fue describir las características clínicas, epidemiológicas y terapéuticas, con estimaciones sobre la supervivencia de los pacientes con diagnóstico de tumor de Wilms, atendidos en el Servicio de Oncología del Hospital Nacional de Niños "Dr. Carlos Sáenz Herrera", de la Caja Costarricense de Seguro Social, atendidos durante el periodo de enero de 2009 a diciembre de 2016. Métodos: Es un estudio observacional, descriptivo retrospectivo, de una serie de casos de pacientes pediátricos con tumor de Wilms atendidos durante un periodo de 8 años. Se revisó el expediente clínico para disponer de forma retrospectiva de los datos de todos los casos, según las variables de interés. Se aplicó análisis descriptivo de variables cualitativas y cuantitativas, así como para diseñar las curvas de supervivencia de Kaplan-Meier; se complementó con análisis inferencial. Resultados: Durante el periodo se atendió un total de 42 pacientes con este diagnóstico, de los cuales un 59,5 % fueron mujeres. La mayor prevalencia se registró en niños de 2 años o menos (66,7 %). Un 95,2 % de los pacientes presentó resultado de histología favorable; todos los casos con histología desfavorable fueron en mujeres. La intervención quirúrgica más común fue la nefrectomía. Todos los pacientes recibieron quimioterapia y solo el 38,1 % recibió radioterapia. Atribuido a la radioterapia, se reportó vómitos como el principal efecto adverso agudo. La supervivencia global estimada a 3 años fue del 85,6 %, y a 5 años fue del 79,9 %; la supervivencia libre de enfermedad fue del 78,8 % a los 3 y 5 años. Conclusiones: En pacientes pediátricos, el tumor de Wilms es una morbilidad oncológica que alcanza una baja frecuencia; aparece en ambos sexos, aunque con histología más desfavorable en mujeres. Ante este diagnóstico, los pacientes reciben tratamiento con cirugía, quimioterapia y radioterapia; la intervención múltiple ha sido exitosa y la gran mayoría de los pacientes alcanzan una supervivencia prolongada y libre de progresión de enfermedad, a los 5 años, los cuales están más cercanos a lo observado en países de ingresos medios.

Abstract Background: Wilms tumor is the most frequent malignant renal tumor in pediatrics. Therapeutic management follows the oncological principle of curing the disease through surgery, chemotherapy, radiotherapy. It seeks to minimize the toxicity of treatments. The objective of the study was todescribe the clinical, epidemiological and, therapeutic characteristics of patients diagnosed with Wilms tumor, treated at the Oncology Unit of the National Children's Hospital "Dr. Carlos Sáenz Herrera" CajaCostarricense de Seguro Social, during the period from January 2009 to December 2016. Methods: It is a descriptive, observational, retrospective study of one series of cases. The population analyzed were 42 pediatric patients with Wilms tumor for seven years. Medical records were revised retrospectively to collect data about all cases. The statistical analysis used qualitative variables and quantitative variables to descriptive and inferential techniques, and for survival analysis, Kaplan- Meier survival curves were used. Results: During a study period, a total of 42 patients diagnosed with Wilms tumor were studied. 59.5% were women. The prevalence is higher in children 2 years old or younger (66.7%). 95.2% of the patients presented favorable histology; and when discriminated by sex, 100.0% of unfavorable histology were women. The most common surgery was nephrectomy. All patients received chemotherapy and 38.1% radiotherapy. The main acute side effect of radiotherapy was vomiting. The estimated overall survival was 85.6% at 3 years, and 79.9% at 5 years and the disease-free survival was the same as 78.8% at 3 and 5 years. Conclusions: Wilms tumor exhibited low frequency in pediatric patients, in both sexes however bad histology most affected women. The patient received a combination of therapy with surgery, chemotherapy and, radiotherapy; his interventions have success and pediatric patients have longer overall survival and free disease progression survival at 5 years, like results of other average income countries.

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Biopurification systems are useful in the management of pesticide residues and provide an option to dispose wastewaters of agricultural origin derived from pesticide application practices. The analysis of pesticide residues in the biopurification system biomixture is necessary to determine whether the removal of the target compounds occurs with reliable results. In this study, the pesticide extraction methodology was optimized and validated in a biomixture composed of coconut fiber, compost and soil, to determine a total of 43 molecules, distributed among triazines (10), triazoles (13) and organophosphates (20) using liquid chromatography coupled to a triple quadrupole mass spectrometer. For the validation, the parameters of linearity, matrix effect, limit of determination (LOD), specificity, selectivity, precision, trueness and robustness in the proposed biomixture were evaluated. The analyses of those parameters revealed satisfactory results of the method for most of the compounds, with the exception of diclorvos and ciromazine, for which the development of an alternative method is recommended. Once the extraction methodology was validated, the removal of eight molecules was assayed in a biopurification system used for the simultaneous treatment of a mixture of pesticide commercial formulations. Although most of the compounds were at least partially removed, none of them was eliminated at levels below the LOD. The removal pattern of ametryn, atrazine, chlorpyrifos, malathion and terbutryn was comparable to those obtained in other efficient biomixtures, and the highly recalcitrant triadimenol was eliminated; nonetheless, tebuconazole and diazinon were not significantly removed.

Assuntos

RESUMO

The continuous release of pharmaceuticals from WWTP effluents to freshwater is a matter of concern, due to their potential effects on non-target organisms. The occurrence of pharmaceuticals in WWTPs and their associated hazard have been scarcely studied in Latin American countries. This study aimed at monitoring for the first time the occurrence of 70 pharmaceutical active compounds (PhACs) in WWTPs across Costa Rica; the application of the hazard quotient (HQ) approach coupled to ecotoxicological determinations permitted to identify the hazard posed by specific pharmaceuticals and toxicity of the effluents, respectively. Thirty-three PhACs were found, with 1,7-dimethylxanthine, caffeine, acetaminophen, ibuprofen, naproxen, ketoprofen and gemfibrozil being the most frequently detected (influents/effluents). HQ for specific pharmaceuticals revealed 24 compounds with high/medium hazard in influents, while the amount only decreased to 21 in effluents. The top HQ values were obtained for risperidone, lovastatin, diphenhydramine and fluoxetine (influent/effluent samples), plus caffeine (influent) and trimethoprim (effluent). Likewise, the estimation of overall hazard in WWTP samples (sum of individual HQ, ∑HQ) demonstrated that every influent and 96% of the effluents presented high hazard towards aquatic organisms. Ecotoxicological analysis (Daphnia magna, Lactuca sativa and Microtox test) revealed that 16.7% of the effluents presented toxicity towards all benchmark organisms; the phytotoxicity was particularly frequent, as inhibition values ≥20% in the germination index for L. sativa were obtained for all the effluents. The ∑HQ approach estimated the highest hazard in urban wastewater, while the ecotoxicological results showed the highest toxicity in hospital and landfill wastewater. Likewise, ecotoxicological results and ∑HQ values showed a rather poor correlation; instead, better correlations were obtained between ecotoxicological parameters and HQ values for some individual pharmaceuticals such as cephalexin and diphenhydramine. Findings from this study provide novel information on the occurrence of pharmaceuticals and the performance of WWTPs in the tropical region of Central America.

Assuntos

RESUMO

Ecotoxicological evaluations require the use of assays with several bioindicators from different trophic levels. Only a few ecotoxicological tests using fungi have been developed, reason why, detection of adverse effects from compounds that exert fungicide action may be overlooked. This work developed a toxicity test based on the inhibition of laccase enzymatic activity in the fungus Trametes versicolor. The test was applied to several fungicides and succeeded to determine inhibition values (half maximum effective concentration, EC50) for most of them (flusilazole, imazalil, pyrimethanil, tetraconazole), though a clear dose-response was not evident for others (thiabendazole, metalaxyl). The application on atrazine (herbicide), imidacloprid (insecticide) and oxytetracycline (antibiotic), proved the proposed test is suitable towards other agrochemicals. The test was also used to estimate the detoxification resulting from two different approaches employed in the removal of agrochemicals. (a) First, in the liquid-phase elimination by fungal biomass simultaneously removing atrazine, imazalil, tebuconazole and triadimenol, the test showed a significant decrease in toxicity by biodegradation (adsorption contribution to detoxification was negligible). (b) Second, a solid-phase biomixture (used for pesticide degradation from agricultural wastewater) partially removed atrazine, imazalil, metalaxyl and pyrimethanil after 33 d; nonetheless, this system could not reduce the toxicity of the matrix, and higher laccase inhibition was detected after the treatment. The design test increases the battery of available bioassays to determine the toxicity of agrochemicals, and provides an interesting tool to monitor biodegradation processes.

Assuntos

RESUMO

Biopurification systems (BPS) or biobeds have been developed to attenuate point-source contamination due to inappropriate pesticide handling or disposal of agricultural wastewaters. The biomixture used for this strategy should be able to remove different active ingredients but its efficiency can vary due to the constant load of pesticides from crop application programs. For that reason, the performance of biomixtures in conditions that mimic the real pesticide treatment before their implementation in field settings should be assayed. This study aimed to evaluate the removal and detoxifying capacity of a previously formulated biomixture (coconut fiber, 50% v/v; compost, 25%; and soil pre-exposed to pesticides, 25%) during a simulated cycle of pesticide application (93 days) for potato production. The scheme included a first application of linuron followed by a weekly alternated treatment of the mixtures chlorpyrifos/metalaxyl and malathion/dimethomorph, and antibiotics at day 72. The biomixture showed efficient removal of linuron (half-life <15 days), and a fluctuating transformation rate for the other compounds. A constant and sustained removal was observed for malathion and methalaxyl. In contrast, lower efficiency and accumulation was described for chlorpyrifos and dimethomorph. Following antibiotic treatment, changes on pesticide removal were observed only in the case of chlorpyrifos, whose removal was slightly enhanced. Furthermore, acute toxicity assays showed limited detoxification of the matrix, especially when compounds began to accumulate. Summarizing, our experiments showed that the proposed biomixture does not support a proper removal of the pesticides during the simulated application cycle of potato production. Further optimization of a biopurification system is required to guarantee the successful elimination of pesticide combinations when applied in field conditions.

Assuntos