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Background: The medical care paradigm is face-to-face; however, technological development has led to the digital modality. Objective: To determine cost-effectiveness of digital care and face-to-face care at the first level of care. Material and methods: Cost-effectiveness study. 2 groups were integrated: the digital service and the face-to-face service. The sample size was calculated with the percentage formula for 2 groups, and the result was 217 per group. The effectiveness was evaluated in 3 dimensions: the satisfaction of the patient, of the doctor and of the medical assistant. In all 3 cases the Visual analogue scale was used. The cost corresponded to the fixed unit cost estimated with the technique of times and movements adjusted for the duration of care. The statistical analysis included averages, percentages and cost-effectiveness ratio. Results: The cost of digital attention is $343.83 and face-to-face attention is $171.91 (all estimated in Mexican pesos). From the patient's perspective, the effectiveness in digital care is $9.47 and in face-to-face is $9.25. The cost to reach effectiveness of 10 in face-to-face care is $185.85 and in digital care $363.20. From the physician's perspective, the cost to achieve effectiveness of 10 is $419.13 in digital care and $184.52 in face-to-face care. From the perspective of the medical assistant, to achieve effectiveness of 10, the cost in digital care is $468.43 and in face-to-face $179.83. Conclusions: Currently, the best cost-effectiveness ratio corresponds to face-to-face care; however, digital care is an option that will have to evolve.

Introducción: el paradigma de atención médica es presencial; sin embargo, el desarrollo tecnológico ha propiciado la modalidad digital. Objetivo: determinar el costo-efectividad de la atención digital y la atención presencial en primer nivel. Material y métodos: estudio de costo-efectividad. Se integraron 2 grupos: el de atención digital y el de atención presencial. El tamaño de muestra se calculó con la fórmula de porcentajes para 2 grupos y el resultado fue 217 por grupo. La efectividad se evaluó en 3 dimensiones: la satisfacción del paciente, del médico y de la asistente médica. En los 3 casos se utilizó la Escala visual analógica. El costo correspondió al costo unitario fijo estimado con la técnica de tiempos y movimientos ajustado por la duración de la atención. El análisis estadístico incluyó promedios, porcentajes y relación costo-efectividad. Resultados: el costo de la atención digital es $343.83 y la atención presencial $171.91. Desde la perspectiva del paciente, la efectividad en atención digital es 9.47 y en presencial 9.25. El costo para alcanzar una efectividad de 10 en la atención presencial es $185.85 y en la atención digital $363.20. Desde la perspectiva del médico, el costo para alcanzar una efectividad de 10 es $419.13 en la atención digital y $184.52 en la atención presencial. Desde la perspectiva de la asistente médica, para alcanzar una efectividad de 10 el costo en la atención digital es $468.43 y en la presencial $179.83. Conclusiones: actualmente la mejor relación costo-efectividad corresponde a la atención presencial; sin embargo, la atención digital es una opción que tendrá que evolucionar.

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BACKGROUND: Type 2 diabetes has economic implications involving family income and out-of-pocket spending. OBJECTIVE: Determine family out-of-pocket expenditure for type 2 diabetes mellitus care and percentage of family income. MATERIAL AND METHODS: Study of family out-of-pocket spending in families with patients with type 2 diabetes treated at primary care level. Out-of-pocket expenses included expenses for transportation, food-drinks, and external medications. Family income corresponded to the total economic income contributed by family members. The percentage of out-of-pocket spending in relation to family income was identified with the relationship between these two variables. Statistical analysis included averages and percentages. RESULTS: The annual family out-of-pocket expenditure on transportation was $2,621.24, the family out-of-pocket expenditure on food and beverages was $1,075.67, and the family out-of-pocket expenditure on external medications was $722.08. The total annual family out-of-pocket expense was $4,418.89 and corresponds to 4.73% of family income. CONCLUSION: The family out-of-pocket expense in the family with a patient with diabetes mellitus 2 was $4,418.89 and represents 4.73% of the family income.

ANTECEDENTES: La diabetes tipo 2 tiene implicaciones económicas en el ingreso familiar y el gasto de bolsillo. OBJETIVO: Determinar el gasto de bolsillo familiar en la atención de la diabetes mellitus tipo 2 y el porcentaje que representa en el ingreso familiar. MATERIAL Y MÉTODOS: Estudio de gasto de bolsillo de las familias con pacientes con diabetes tipo 2 atendidos en el primer nivel de atención. El gasto de bolsillo familiar incluyó gasto en traslado, alimentos-bebidas y medicamentos externos. El ingreso familiar correspondió al total de ingresos económicos aportados por los miembros de la familia. El porcentaje del gasto de bolsillo con relación al ingreso familiar se identificó con la relación entre estas dos variables. El análisis estadístico incluyó promedios y porcentajes. RESULTADOS: El gasto de bolsillo familiar anual en transporte fue de $2621.24, en alimentos y bebidas fue de $1075.67 y en medicamentos externos fue de $722.08. El gasto familiar de bolsillo total anual fue de $4418.89 y correspondió a 4.73 % del ingreso familiar. CONCLUSIÓN: El gasto de bolsillo en las familias con un paciente con diabetes mellitus tipo 2 fue de $4418.89 y representó 4.73 % del ingreso familiar.

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BACKGROUND: Elder abuse (EA), depressive symptoms, and loneliness represent a growing risk to the health, well-being, and premature mortality of older adults. However, the role of loneliness in the relationship between EA and depressive symptoms has not yet been examined. AIMS: To investigate the associations between these constructs and to explore the possible mediating role of loneliness in the relationship between EA and depressive symptoms in a representative sample of older Mexican people. METHODS: A representative community-dwelling survey of older adults aged 60 and older was conducted in two cities in Mexico (Mexico City and Xalapa) in 2018-2019. Measurements of EA, loneliness, depressive symptoms, health, and sociodemographic data were collected. Regression and mediation models were tested to analyze the associations between these variables. RESULTS: The prevalence of EA was 16.3%, loneliness was 50%, and depressive symptoms were 25.5%. The odds ratio (OR) for the occurrence of depressive symptoms was 2.7 when the combined effects of EA and loneliness were considered. The proportion of the effect that could explain the mediating role of loneliness was 31%. CONCLUSION: To effectively reduce depressive symptoms in older individuals affected by emotional or psychological abuse and neglect, it is crucial to address both the mediating influence of loneliness and EA itself in therapeutic and preventive interventions.

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BACKGROUND: Depression in ageing adults is a public health problem. Worldwide studies have identified social and health risk factors for depressive symptoms. However, little is known about their longitudinal determinants in Mexico. OBJECTIVES AND SETTING: To find the prevalence of depressive symptoms and their longitudinal individual and contextual risk factors in Mexican adults aged 50 and older. DESIGN: Secondary data of 6460 persons aged 50 years and older from the Mexican Health and Aging Study were analysed using a 'between-within' panel data analysis approach. RESULTS: The prevalence of depressive symptoms increased from 35% in 2003 to 38% in 2015. The significantly longitudinal factors associated with these symptoms were getting older (OR 1.02, 95% CI 1.01 to 1.03), being a woman (OR 2.39, 95% CI 2.16 to 2.64), less time spent in formal education (0 years and less than 6 years OR 1.52, 95% CI 1.32 to 1.75 and OR 1.33, 95% CI 1.19 to 1.50, respectively), lower net worth (OR 1.13, 95% CI 1.08 to 1.17), being recently unemployed (OR 1.25, 95% CI 1.10 to 1.25), increased (OR 1.17, 95% CI 1.10 to 1.25) or increasing number (OR 1.23, 95% CI 1.15 to 1.31) of chronic conditions, poor (OR 4.68, 95% CI 4.26 to 5.15) or worsened (OR 1.71, 95% CI 1.61 to 1.81) self-rated health and having impairments on instrumental activities of daily living (IADLs) (OR 2.94 95% CI 2.35 to 3.67) or a new IADL impairment (OR 1.67, 95% CI 1.48 to 1.89), as well as having impairments on ADLs (OR 1.51, 95% CI 1.23 to 1.86) or a new ADL impairment (OR 1.34, 95% CI 1.21 to 1.48). CONCLUSIONS: The prevalence of depressive symptoms in Mexican adults aged 50 and older is high. Our findings show that they are longitudinally associated with the individual's demographic, socioeconomic, health and disability characteristics. Efforts in public policy should focus on preventing chronic conditions and disability, as well as fighting inequalities to reduce the prevalence of depressive symptoms.

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BACKGROUND: The Global Campaign against Headache is conducting a series of population-based studies to fill the large geographical gaps in knowledge of headache prevalence and attributable burden. One major region not until now included is South America. Here we present a study from Peru, a country of 32.4 million inhabitants located at the west coast of South America, notable for its high Andes mountains. METHODS: The study was conducted in accordance with the standardized methodology used by the Global Campaign. It was a cross-sectional survey using cluster randomised sampling in five regions to derive a nationally representative sample, visiting households unannounced, and interviewing one randomly selected adult member (aged 18-65 years) of each using the Headache-Attributed Restriction, Disability, Social Handicap and Impaired Participation (HARDSHIP) questionnaire translated into South American Spanish. The neutral screening question ("Have you had headache in the last year?") was followed by diagnostic questions based on ICHD-3 and demographic enquiry. RESULTS: The study included 2,149 participants from 2,385 eligible households (participating proportion 90.1%): 1,065 males and 1,084 females, mean age 42.0 ± 13.7 years. The observed 1-year prevalence of all headache was 64.6% [95% CI: 62.5-66.6], with age-, gender- and habitation-adjusted prevalences of 22.8% [21.0-24.6] for migraine (definite + probable), 38.9% [36.8-41.0] for tension-type headache (TTH: also definite + probable), 1.2% [0.8-1.8] for probable medication-overuse headache (pMOH) and 2.7% [2.1-3.5] for other headache on ≥ 15 days/month (H15+). One-day prevalence of headache (reported headache yesterday) was 12.1%. Migraine was almost twice as prevalent among females (28.2%) as males (16.4%; aOR = 2.1; p < 0.001), and strongly associated with living at very high altitude (aOR = 2.5 for > 3,500 versus < 350 m). CONCLUSION: The Global Campaign's first population-based study in South America found headache disorders to be common in Peru, with prevalence estimates for both migraine and TTH substantially exceeding global estimates. H15 + was also common, but with fewer than one third of cases diagnosed as pMOH. The association between migraine and altitude was confirmed, and found to be strengthened at very high altitude. This association demands further study.

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Antecedentes. Ante la pandemia de COVID-19 el sistema de salud reasignó recursos económicos para la atención. Objetivo. Determinar el costo de la atención y el porcentaje del gasto en salud por COVID-19 en una unidad de medicina familiar de primer nivel de atención. Metodología. Estudio de costo y porcentaje de gasto en COVID-19 en una unidad de primer nivel de atención. Se identificaron los servicios generales y finales, para construir el costo fijo se utilizó la técnica de tiempos y movimientos, se identificaron el total de partidas presupuestales ejercidas en la unidad médica para cada uno de los servicios, para desagregar el gasto de los servicios generales a los finales se construyeron ponderadores. El costo variable se realizó con la técnica consenso de expertos y microcosteo. El costo promedio se relacionó con la productividad por servicio y con el total de pacientes atendidos por COVID-19, el resultado se relacionó con el presupuesto ejercido de la unidad. Resultados. El costo anual de la atención de COVID-19 en módulo respiratorio fue 158.597,25 dólares americanos, en medicina familiar fue 192.549,36 dólares americanos, el costo total ejercido en el año 2021 para atención de SARS COV 2 en una unidad de primera atención fue 351.146,61 dólares americanos. Esta cantidad representa el 9,6 % del gasto en salud. Conclusión. El costo en atención de COVID-19 y el porcentaje del gasto en salud en primer nivel de atención es elevado (AU)

Background. In the COVID-19 pandemic, the health system reallocated financial resources for care. Objetive. To determine the cost of care and the percentage of health spending due to COVID-19 in a first level care family medicine unit. Metodology. Study of the cost and percentage of spending on COVID-19 in a first-level care unit. The general and final services were identified, to construct the fixed cost, the technique of times and movements was used, the total budget items exercised in the medical unit for each of the services were identified, to disaggregate the expense of general services to the endings were constructed weights. Variable costing was performed using the expert consensus technique and microcosting. The average cost was related to productivity per service and to the total number of patients treated for COVID-19, the result was related to the budget used by the unit. Results. The annual cost of COVID-19 care in the respiratory module was 158.597,25 US dollars, in family medicine it was 192.549,36 US dollars, the total cost incurred in 2021 for SARS COV 2 care in a unit of first attention was 351.146,61 US dollars. This amount represents 9,6% of health spending. Conclusion. The cost of COVID-19 care and the percentage of health spending at the first level of care is high (AU)

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The objectives of this study were: 1) to estimate the prevalence of child abuse (CA), intimate partner violence (IPV), and elder abuse (EA) in a representative sample of older Mexican women by status, type, and cause of disability; and 2) to examine the associations of EA with CA, IPV, and disability status. We conducted a secondary data analysis of 21,718 women aged 60 years and older. Older women with disabilities had higher prevalences of CA, IPV, and EA than those with some difficulties or without disabilities. In older women whose disability was acquired at birth or due to aggression, this prevalence was especially high. Older women with disabilities and a history of CA and IPV were twice as likely to suffer EA. Policymakers and government leaders should incorporate the matter of violence against women with disabilities into their public agendas. This should be done while considering the women's various disabilities and causes of disability.

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Resumen Objetivo: Estimar la prevalencia del maltrato y de la multimorbilidad, así como, analizar si el maltrato con la presencia de multimorbilidad está asociado con la autopercepción de la calidad de vida relacionada con la salud en personas mayores de Xalapa, Veracruz. Material y métodos: Este es un estudio transversal a partir de datos recolectados en una encuesta representativa de las personas mayores (≥60 años) de Xalapa, Veracruz. La encuesta se realizó de septiembre de 2018 a enero de 2019 (n = 993). Se utilizó un cuestionario para recolectar datos demográficos, socioeconómicos y de salud. El maltrato se evalúo mediante la Escala Geriátrica de Maltrato (EGM-22 ítems) y la calidad de vida relacionada con la salud mediante el cuestionario de salud Short Form 36 (SF-36). Se realizaron análisis descriptivos para estimar las prevalencias y modelos de regresión logística para analizar la asociación. Resultados: La prevalencia del maltrato de personas mayores fue 16,2%. Los tipos de maltrato fueron: psicológico (13,6%), económico (4,8%), físico (3,2%), negligencia (2,3%) y abuso sexual (0,5%). La prevalencia de multimorbilidad fue 43.2%. Las personas mayores con maltrato y multimorbilidad presentaron menor calidad de vida en las dimensiones de rol físico (OR 2,362 IC: 1,254-4,452), dolor corporal (OR 2,278 IC: 1,277-4,065) y salud mental (OR 2,94 IC: 1,499-5,766). Conclusiones: El maltrato y la multimorbilidad son problemas comunes en las personas mayores de Xalapa, Veracruz, la presencia de estos dos eventos se asocia con una menor calidad de vida relacionada con la salud. La investigación futura debería concentrarse en mejorar la comprensión de las relaciones familiares de las personas mayores con multimorbilidad y, los servicios sociales y de atención médica deben tomar en cuenta estos hallazgos para atender el maltrato de personas mayores con multimorbilidad antes de que ocurran más situaciones adversas que impacten en su calidad de vida.

Abstract Objective: To estimate the prevalence of elder abuse and multimorbidity, as well as to analyze if elder abuse in the presence of multimorbidity is associated with self-perceived health-related quality of life in older adults from Xalapa, Veracruz. Material and methods: Material and methods: This is a cross-sectional study based on data collected in a representative survey of older people (≥60 years) from Xalapa, Veracruz. The survey was conducted from September 2018 to January 2019 (n = 993). A questionnaire was used to collect demographic, socioeconomic, and health data. Elder abuse was assessed using the Geriatric Mistreatment Scale (GMS-22 items) and health-related quality of life using the short form 36 health survey questionnaire (SF-36). Descriptive analyzes were performed to estimate the prevalence and logistic regression models to analyze the association. Results: The prevalence of elder abuse was 16.2%. The types of elder abuse were psychological (13.6%), economic (4.8%), physical (3.2%), neglect (2.3%) and sexual abuse (0.5%). The prevalence of multimorbidity was 43.2%. Older people with both elder abuse and multimorbidity presented lower health-related quality of life in the dimensions of physical role (OR 2,362 IC: 1,254-4,452), body pain (OR 2,278 IC: 1,277-4,065) and mental health (OR 2,94 IC: 1,499-5,766). Conclusions: Elder abuse and multimorbidity are common problems in the older population in Xalapa, Veracruz, Mexico; the presence of these two events is associated with lower health-related quality of life. Future research should focus on improving understanding of the family relationships of older people with multimorbidity, and health care and social services should take these findings into account to address the elder abuse with multimorbidity before further adverse situations occur that impact their health-related quality of life.

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INTRODUCTION: Life expectancy (LE) and Health-adjusted life expectancy (HALE) are summary indicators that reflect a population's general life conditions and measure inequities in health outcomes. The objective of this study was to identify the differences in LE and HALE by sex, age group, and state in Mexico from 1990 to 2019. Also, to evaluate whether the changes in HALE are related to sociodemographic indicators and indicators of access to and quality of health services. METHODS: A secondary analysis was performed based on the Global Burden of Disease, Injuries, and Risk Factors Study (GBD). Data were obtained for LE (by sex and state) and HALE (by sex, age group, and state) for the years 1990, 2010, and 2019. The correlations between HALE with the Socio-Demographic Index (SDI) and with the Healthcare Access and Quality (HAQ) Index were estimated for 1990 and 2019 (by total population and sex). RESULTS: LE and HALE had an absolute increase of 6.7% and 6.4% from 1990 to 2019, mainly among women, although they spent more years in poor health (11.8 years) than men. The patterns of LE and HALE were heterogeneous and divergent by state. In 2019, the difference in HALE (for both sex) between the states with the highest (Hidalgo) and the lowest (Chiapas) value was 4.6 years. CONCLUSIONS: Progress in LE and HALE has slowed in recent years; HALE has even had setbacks in some states. Gaps between men and women, as well as between states, are persistent. Public and population policymaking should seek to lengthen LE and focus on ensuring that such years are spent in good health and with good quality of life.

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Determinar el gasto de bolsillo en salud en las familias con diabetes mellitus y/o hipertensión arterial y el porcentaje del ingreso familiar durante la pandemia del Covid-19. Estudio de gasto de bolsillo en salud que incluyó muestreo consecutivo de 268 familias de México. El ingreso trimestral familiar se definió como la suma de ingresos de cada uno de los integrantes de la familia, el gasto en salud se definió como el total de erogaciones que tuvo la familia para cubrir los diferentes servicios de salud, y porcentaje de gasto en salud se definió como la relación del gasto total trimestral y el gasto corriente del hogar, valores expresados en pesos mexicanos. El promedio trimestral del gasto de bolsillo en salud en la familia con diabetes mellitus y/o hipertensión arterial en la dimensión consulta fue $975,82 y en la dimensión medicamentos $1,371.22; el gasto promedio total trimestral fue $3,133.08. El ingreso trimestral de la familia después de la pandemia del covid-19 fue $85,348.86 lo que representa 5,93% menos del ingreso trimestral antes de la pandemia. El gasto trimestral en salud fue $3,133.08, lo cual corresponde a 3,45% y 3,67% del ingreso trimestral familiar antes y después de la pandemia del Covid-19 respectivamente (AU)

Determine out-of-pocket health spending in families with diabetes mellitus and/or high blood pressure and the percentage of family income during the Covid-19 pandemic. Study of out-of-pocket health spending that included consecutive sampling of 268 families in Mexico. The quarterly family income was defined as the sum of income of each of the family members, health spending was defined as the total expenses that the family had to cover the different health services, and percentage of health spending. It was defined as the relationship between total quarterly expenditure and current household expenditure, values expressed in Mexican pesos. The quarterly average of out-of-pocket health expenditure in the family with diabetes mellitus and/or arterial hypertension in the consultation dimension was $975.82 and in the medication dimension $1,371.22; The average total quarterly expense was $3,133.08. The family's quarterly income after the covid-19 pandemic was $85,348.86, which represents 5.93% less than the quarterly income before the pandemic. The quarterly health expenditure was $3,133.08, which corresponds to 3.45% and 3.67% of the family's quarterly income before and after the Covid-19 pandemic respectively (AU)

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Introducción. El COVID-19 grave con foco neumónico se maneja en hospital, en esta población las secuelas físicas y funcionales posterior al egreso hospitalario son más frecuentes, involucran la calidad de vida y tienen repercusión en las actividades cotidianas, la autopercepción y el autocuidado.Objetivo. Identificar el tiempo transcurrido para la recuperación de la calidad de vida previa al evento COVID-19 en pacientes que requirieron hospitalización.Metodología. Diseño de cohorte antes-después en pacientes que requirieron hospitalización por cuadro de COVID-19. Se consideró expuesto a los pacientes después del evento COVID-19 y no expuesto al mismo paciente antes del evento. La calidad de vida relacionada con la salud se midió con el instrumento SF-36. El plan de análisis incluyó ecuación de regresión lineal y proyección del número de días transcurridos después de la hospitalización para recuperar la calidad de vida relacionada con la salud previa al evento COVID-19 a partir del egreso hospitalario. Resultados. La dimensión que tarda más días en recuperar la calidad de vida que poseía previa al evento COVID-19 es rol físico con 225 días, y la dimensión que menos días tarda en recuperar la calidad de vida que poseía previa el evento es vitalidad y función social, ambas con 44 días.Conclusión. El tiempo para la recuperación de la calidad de vida previo a la hospitalización es diferente en cada una de las dimensiones de la calidad de vida (AU)

Introduction. Severe COVID-19 with a pneumonic focus is managed in a hospital. In this population, the physical and functional sequelae after hospital discharge are more frequent, involve quality of life, and have an impact on daily activities, self-perception, and self-care.Aim. Identify the time elapsed for the recovery of the quality of life prior to the COVID-19 event in patients who required hospitalization.Methodology. Before-after cohort design in patients who required hospitalization due to COVID-19. Patients were considered exposed after the COVID-19 event and not exposed to the same patient before the event. Health-related quality of life was measured with the SF-36 instrument. The analysis plan included a linear regression equation and projection of the number of days elapsed after hospitalization to recover the health-related quality of life prior to the COVID-19 event from hospital discharge.Results. The dimension that takes the longest days to recover the quality of life that it had prior to the COVID-19 event is physical role with 225 days, and the dimension that takes the fewest days to recover the quality of life that it had prior to the event is vitality and social function, both with 44 days.Conclusion. The time for recovery of quality of life prior to hospitalization is different in each of the dimensions of quality of life (AU)

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Objetivo: Identificar los factores asociados a la adherencia al tratamiento farmacológico en pacientes con diabetes mellitus tipo 2 sin hipertensión arterial. Materiales y métodos: Estudio transversal y analítico en pacientes con diabetes mellitus tipo 2 sin hipertensión arterial. Se integraron el grupo con adherencia al tratamiento (n = 145) y el grupo sin adherencia al tratamiento (n = 49), determinado por la escala de adherencia a la medicación de Morisky de 4 ítems (MMAS-4). Como factores asociados, se estudiaron sexo, vida en pareja, escolaridad, ocupación, edad agrupada en decenios y tiempo de evolución de la diabetes agrupada en menos de un año, de 1 a 5 años, de 6 a 10 años y más de 10 años. El plan de análisis estadístico incluyó la prueba de ji al cuadrado. Resultados: Se identificaron el sexo (p = 0,045), la vida en pareja (p = 0,045), la edad (p = 0,001) y el tiempo de evolución de la enfermedad (p = 0,001) como factores asociados a la adherencia al tratamiento farmacológico. La escolaridad no se identificó como un factor asociado a la adherencia terapéutica en el paciente con diabetes mellitus tipo 2 (p = 0,289). A mayor edad, menor adherencia al tratamiento farmacológico en el paciente con diabetes: el punto de corte se presenta a los 60 años; después de esta edad, el porcentaje en el grupo no adherente es mayor que en el grupo con adherencia (p = 0,001). A mayor tiempo de evolución de la diabetes, menor probabilidad de adherencia; en el grupo no adherente, el porcentaje de pacientes con más de 10 años de evolución es 67,3 % y en el grupo con adherencia el porcentaje corresponde a 33,8 % (p = 0,001). Conclusiones: Se identificaron los factores asociados a la adherencia al tratamiento farmacológico en pacientes con diabetes mellitus tipo 2 sin hipertensión arterial.

Objective: To identify the factors associated with adherence to drug therapy among patients with type 2 diabetes mellitus without hypertension. Materials and methods: A cross-sectional, analytical study conducted with patients with type 2 diabetes mellitus without hypertension, divided into an adherent group (n = 145) and a non-adherent group (n = 49), determined by the 4-item Morisky Medication Adherence Scale (MMAS-4). The associated factors were sex, cohabitation, schooling, occupation, age in 10-year groups and diabetes progression time grouped in less than 1 year, from 1 to 5 years, from 6 to 10 years and more than 10 years. The statistical analysis plan included the chi-square test. Results: The factors associated with adherence to drug therapy were identified as sex (p = 0.045), cohabitation (p = 0.045), age (p = 0.001) and disease progression time (p = 0.001). Schooling was not identified as a factor associated with adherence to drug therapy among patients with type 2 diabetes mellitus (p = 0.289). The older the patient with diabetes, the lower the adherence to drug therapy; the cut-off point was 60 years of age, after which the percentage in the non-adherent group was higher than in the adherent group (p = 0.001). The longer the diabetes progression time, the lower the probability of adherence; in the non-adherent group the percentage of patients with more than 10 years of disease progression was 67.3 % and in the adherent group the percentage was 33.8 % (p = 0.001). Conclusions: The factors associated with adherence to drug therapy among patients with type 2 diabetes mellitus without hypertension were identified

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Background: Rheumatoid arthritis affects approximately between 0.3 and 1.2% of the world population. In Latin America, different studies have estimated a prevalence between 0.2 and 0.5% in the population over 16 years of age. Objective: To identify the epidemiological profile of rheumatoid arthritis. Material and methods: Descriptive cross-sectional design carried out in an urban population of a social security institution in Mexico. The information of the clinical file of 373 patients was studied. The epidemiological profile included the sociodemographic dimension, family history, health, clinical, therapeutic, biochemical, extra-articular manifestations and complications. Statistical analysis percentages, means, confidence intervals for percentages and confidence intervals for averages were calculated. Results: The wrists were the most affected joints with 44.6% (95% CI: 39.5-49.6%). The extra-articular manifestation with the highest prevalence was asthenia with 9.9% (95% CI: 6.9-12.9%); predominant diagnosis according to ICD-10 was seropositive rheumatoid arthritis with 59.8% (95% CI: 54.8-64.8%), and the rheumatoid factor was highly positive in 78.3% (95% CI: 74.1-82.5%); predominant treatment was with combined therapy at diagnosis in 97.6% (95% CI: 96.0-99.1%). The duration of treatment was > 10 years in 34.1% (95% CI: 29.2-38.8%). Conclusion: This work has described the epidemiological profile of the patient with rheumatoid arthritis in different dimensions.

Introducción: la artritis reumatoide afecta aproximadamente entre 0.3 y 1.2% de la población mundial. En Latinoamérica diferentes estudios han estimado una prevalencia entre 0.2 y 0.5% en población mayor de 16 años de edad. Objetivo: identificar el perfil epidemiológico de la artritis reumatoide. Material y métodos: diseño transversal descriptivo llevado a cabo en población urbana de una institución de seguridad social en México. Se estudió la información del expediente clínico de 373 pacientes. El perfil epidemiológico incluyó la dimensión sociodemográfica, antecedentes heredofamiliares, de salud, clínicos, terapéuticos, bioquímicos, de manifestaciones extraarticulares y de complicaciones. Se calcularon porcentajes, promedios, e intervalos de confianza para porcentajes y promedios. Resultados: las muñecas fueron las articulaciones más afectadas con 44.6% (IC 95%: 39.5-49.6%). La manifestación extraarticular con más alta prevalencia fue la astenia con 9.9% (IC 95%: 6.9-12.9%); el diagnóstico predominante de acuerdo con el CIE-10 fue la artritis reumatoide seropositiva con 59.8% (IC 95%: 54.8-64.8%) y se encontró el factor reumatoide positivo alto en un 78.3% (IC 95%: 74.1%-82.5%); el tratamiento predominante fue con terapia combinada al diagnóstico en un 97.6%, (IC 95%: 96.0-99.1%). La duración del tratamiento fue > 10 años en el 34.1% (IC 95%: 29.2-38.8%). Conclusión: este trabajo ha descrito el perfil epidemiológico del paciente con artritis reumatoide en diferentes dimensiones.

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BACKGROUND: Aging and multimorbidity (MM) are not enough to explain patient heterogeneity and outcomes. The objective of this study was to estimate the effect of multimorbidity patterns and indicators of socioeconomic, behavioral, and functional dimensions on the risk of death in a cohort of people ≥50 years old. METHODS: We analyzed a cohort of 7,342 persons ≥50 years old from the Mexican Health and Aging Study (MHAS), stratified by age groups (50-64, 65-84, ≥85 years old). MM was defined as the co-occurrence of two or more chronic diseases (CDs), and additional analysis included functional, socioeconomic, and behavioral indicators. Prevalence was estimated using descriptive analysis. Latent class analysis (LCA) was used to identify MM patterns, and logistic regression models were performed to estimate the risk of death at two and 18 years of follow-up. RESULTS: The most prevalent conditions were chronic pain, depression, and hypertension, with 60% of the subjects exhibiting MM at the initial evaluation. In all three age groups, indicators of the functional dimension were identified as risk factors for death. Economic precariousness was an additional risk factor in the 65-84 age group while living without a partner was an added risk factor in the ≥85 age group. For the 50-64 age group, "poor" self-perception of health and lack of physical exercise were identified as long-term risk factors for death. CONCLUSION: MM is a complex phenomenon that requires the implementation of age-specific care models. Health, socioeconomic and behavioral conditions should be considered to mitigate the risk of premature death.

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Recent studies have focused on the negative effects of loneliness on health and quality of life in older adults. The De Jong Gierveld Loneliness Scale (DJGLS) has been widely used and has proven to be a valid and reliable instrument for loneliness assessment. However, research on this topic and on the validation of measurement scales among the older population is still incipient. The objective of this study was to examine the psychometric properties of the Spanish version of the 11-item DJGLS in Mexican older adults. Data from a representative sample of cognitively intact older adults aged 60 years and over (mean, standard deviation [SD]) age = 72.0 years (SD 8.1) from two Mexican cities (n = 1913), interviewed face to face at their homes during 2018-2019, were analyzed. The psychometric properties of the DJGLS were examined, including (1) construct validity, examined by Exploratory Factor Analysis (EFA) and Confirmatory Factor Analysis (CFA), discriminate validity and convergent validity, (2) reliability, calculated using Cronbach's alpha. The overall data quality was high, and the scaling assumptions were generally met with few exceptions. Using EFA and CFA, the findings showed that the DJGLS presents a two-factor structure (Social Loneliness and Emotional Loneliness), with 11 items that explain 67.2% of the total variance. Reliability is adequate at the full-scale level (Cronbach´s α = 0.899), also for the two subscales Social and Emotional Loneliness (Cronbach´s α = 0.892 and 0.776, respectively). These results highlight that most participants with a low score for depressive symptoms and or with a high social support score belonged to the "No loneliness" group. The results showed that the Spanish version of the 11-item DJGLS is adequate for use in Mexican older adults and should be used not only for loneliness screening but also for social and emotional loneliness assessment.

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Introducción. La condición nutricional de la mujer antes y durante el embarazo es uno de los determinantes del riesgo de morbimortalidad materna. Objetivo. Determinar la relación del incremento del índice de masa corporal y la presencia de infección de las vías urinarias en primigestas. Métodos. Estudio de casos y controles en expedientes de primigestas. Se estudiaron variables sociodemográficas (edad, escolaridad, vida en pareja y ocupación), condiciones obstétricas (riesgo obstétrico, semanas de inicio del control prenatal, semanas de resolución del embarazo y número de consultas prenatales), antropometría al inicio y al final del embarazo (peso, talla, índice de masa corporal y condición nutricional -peso bajo, peso normal, sobrepeso y obesidad-, ganancia de peso y ganancia de índice de masa corporal) y modificación de la condición nutricional al inicio y al final del embarazo. El análisis estadístico se efectuó con porcentajes, promedios, intervalos de confianza para promedios, prueba de chi2, razón de momios, intervalos de confianza para razón de momios, regresión lineal simple y proyección de la ocurrencia del evento. Resultados. Cuando el incremento del índice de masa corporal fue de 5 kg/m2, el promedio de infección de las vías urinarias correspondió a 1,62 y, si el incremento del índice de masa corporal fue 10 kg/m2, el promedio de infección de las vías urinarias fue 2,3. Conclusión. En nuestro estudio, a mayor incremento del índice de masa corporal durante el embarazo de la primigesta, mayor fue su probabilidad de presentar infección de las vías urinarias.

Introduction: The nutritional status of women before and during pregnancy is one of the determinants of the risk of maternal morbidity and mortality. Objective: To determine the relationship between the increase in body mass index and the presence of urinary tract infection in primigravidae. Methods: Case-control study in primigravidae records. We studied sociodemographic variables (age, schooling, life as a couple and occupation), obstetric conditions (obstetric risk, weeks of beginning of prenatal control, weeks of pregnancy resolution and number of prenatal visits), anthropometry at the beginning and end of pregnancy (weight, height, body mass index and nutritional condition -underweight, normal weight, overweight and obesity-, weight gain and body mass index gain), and modification of nutritional condition at the beginning and end of pregnancy. Statistical analysis was performed with percentages, averages, confidence intervals for averages, Chi2 test, odds ratio, confidence intervals for odds ratio, simple linear regression, and projection of event occurrence. Results: When the increase in body mass index was 5 kg/m2, the mean urinary tract infection corresponded to 1.62 and, if the increase in body mass index was 10 kg/m2, the mean urinary tract infection was 2.3. Conclusion: In our study, the greater the increase in body mass index during pregnancy of the primigravida, the greater her probability of presenting urinary tract infection.

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Objetivo: Evaluar el efecto protector de la vacuna para SARS-CoV-2 para hospitalizaciones por COVID-19 durante la cuarta ola epidémica en Querétaro, México. Métodos: Diseño de cohorte retrospectiva en pacientes con COVID-19 durante la cuarta ola (19 de diciembre de 2021 al 9 de enero de 2022). Grupos expuestos, antecedente de vacuna anti COVID-19 (vacuna de adenovirus modificado genéticamente y vacuna de ácido ribonucleico mensajero), grupo no expuesto, no vacuna. El diagnóstico de COVID-19 se realizó con la prueba antigénica rápida en exudado orofaringeo, prueba practicada entre el primero y quinto día del inicio de sintomatología. Se incluyeron todos los pacientes que acudieron al servicio de salud por sintomatología, con prueba positiva y dos dosis de la vacuna. El análisis estadístico incluyó chi cuadrada, riesgo relativo e intervalo de confianza para riesgo relativo. Resultados: Se estudiaron 52 pacientes con vacuna de adenovirus modificado genéticamente, 119 con vacuna de ácido ribonucleico mensajero y 336 pacientes no vacunados. En pacientes no vacunados la incidencia de hospitalización fue 62,2%, en pacientes con vacuna adenovirus modificado genéticamente la hospitalización fue 23,1% (p<0.001), riesgo relativo de 0,37 (IC 95%; 0,22-0,61); y en pacientes con vacuna de ácido ribonucleico mensajero la incidencia de hospitalización fue 1,7% (p<0.001), riesgo relativo de 0,03 (IC 95%; 0,006-0,10). Conclusiones: La vacuna anti COVID-19 en el ámbito poblacional es efectiva para evitar hospitalización en pacientes que presentan cuadro agudo de COVID-19 en la cuarta ola.

Objective: To assess the protective effect of the vaccine against SARS-CoV-2 upon hospitalizations due to COVID-19 during the fourth epidemic wave in Queretaro, Mexico. Methods: This investigation was designed as a retrospective cohort study in patients with COVID-19 during the fourth wave of the epidemic (December 19th, 2021, to January 9th, 2022). The exposed group consisted in those subjects who had received a vaccine against COVID-19 (genetically modified adenovirus vaccine and messenger ribonucleic acid vaccine); and the non-exposed group consisted in those people who were not vaccinated. Diagnosis of COVID-19 was made with a rapid antigenic test in oropharyngeal exudate, and the test was performed between the first and fifth day after the onset of symptoms. All patients who came to healthcare facilities because of symptoms, with a positive test and having received two doses of the vaccine. Statistical analysis included chi-square, relative risk, and confidence intervals (CI) for the relative risk. Results: Fifty-two patients who received a genetically modified vaccine, 119 who received a messenger ribonucleic acid vaccine, and 336 non vaccinated subjects were included in the study. The frequency of hospitalization was 62,2% in non-vaccinated persons, this rate was 23,1% (p<0.001), and relative risk was 0,37 (95% CI; 0,22-0,61) in those who received a genetically modified adenovirus vaccine, and it was 1.7% (p<0.001), and relative risk was 0,03 (95% CI; 0,006-0,10) in those who received the messenger ribonucleic acid vaccine. Conclusions: From a population point of view, the vaccine against COVID-19 was effective for preventing hospitalization in patients with acute COVID-19 disease during the fourth epidemic wave.

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CONTEXT: Progress in palliative care (PC) necessarily involves scientific development. However, research conducted in South America (SA) needs to be improved. OBJECTIVES: To develop a set of recommendations to advance PC research in SA. METHODS: Eighteen international PC experts participated in a Delphi study. In round one, items were developed (open-ended questions); in round two, each expert scored the importance of each item (from 0 to 10); in round three, they selected the 20 most relevant items. Throughout the rounds, the five main priority themes for research in SA were defined. In Round three, consensus was defined as an agreement of ≥75%. RESULTS: 60 potential suggestions for overcoming research barriers in PC were developed in round one. Also in Round one, 88.2% (15 of 17) of the experts agreed to define a priority research agenda. In Round two, the 36 most relevant suggestions were defined and a new one added. Potential research priorities were investigated (open-ended). In Round three, from the 37 items, 10 were considered the most important. Regarding research priorities, symptom control, PC in primary care, public policies, education and prognosis were defined as the most relevant. CONCLUSION: Potential strategies to improve scientific research on PC in SA were defined, including stimulating the formation of collaborative research networks, offering courses and workshops on research, structuring centers with infrastructure resources and trained researchers, and lobbying governmental organizations to convince about the importance of palliative care. In addition, priority research topics were identified in the region.

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Resumen OBJETIVO: Describir la prevalencia de diabetes gestacional e hipertensión arterial en pacientes embarazadas con obesidad pregestacional. MATERIALES Y MÉTODOS: Estudio retrospectivo, transversal y descriptivo llevado a cabo en mujeres embarazadas con diagnóstico previo de obesidad (índice de masa corporal superior a 29.99) y con control prenatal. Parámetros evaluados: estilo de vida (alimentación, actividad física, consumo de alcohol, tabaco o alguna toxicomanía) y características físicas, clínicas y bioquímicas durante el embarazo actual por trimestre (índice de masa corporal, glucosa, presión arterial sistólica y diastólica). El diagnóstico de diabetes gestacional se estableció mediante una prueba de tolerancia a la glucosa entre las semanas 24 y 28 de embarazo. La hipertensión gestacional se diagnosticó por cifras de presión arterial mayores e iguales a 140-90 mmHg a partir de la semana 20 de embarazo y en ausencia de proteinuria. El análisis estadístico incluyó porcentajes, promedios e intervalos de confianza. RESULTADOS: La prevalencia de diabetes gestacional en embarazadas con obesidad fue 13.7% (IC95%: 9.6 a 17.9) y la de hipertensión gestacional en embarazadas con obesidad 7.4% (IC95%: 4.3 a 10.6). CONCLUSIÓN: La obesidad es un factor conocido de riesgos, en particular de diabetes e hipertensión en el embarazo. Su alta prevalencia hace necesario implementar campañas de prevención que favorezcan su reducción.

Abstract OBJECTIVE: To describe the prevalence of gestational diabetes and arterial hypertension in pregnant patients with pre-pregnancy obesity. MATERIALS AND METHODS: Retrospective, cross-sectional and descriptive study in pregnant women with a diagnosis of obesity prior to pregnancy (body mass index greater than 29.99) and with prenatal care. The sample size was 269 pregnant women. Lifestyle (diet, physical activity, alcohol, tobacco or drug addiction) and physical, clinical and biochemical characteristics during the current pregnancy were evaluated by gestational trimester (body mass index, glucose, systolic and diastolic blood pressure). The diagnosis of gestational diabetes was established by a glucose tolerance test between the 24th and 28th week of gestation and gestational hypertension was diagnosed by blood pressure figures greater than or equal to 140/90 mmHg from the 20th week of gestation and in the absence of proteinuria. Statistical analysis included percentages, means, and confidence intervals. RESULTS: The prevalence of gestational diabetes in obese pregnant women was 13.7% (95%CI: 9.6-17.9) and the prevalence of gestational hypertension in obese pregnant women was 7.4% (95%CI: 4.3-10.6). CONCLUSION: Obesity is a known risk factor, particularly for diabetes and hypertension in pregnancy. Its high prevalence makes it necessary to implement prevention campaigns to reduce it.