RESUMO
Mitochondrial dysfunction and oxidative stress contribute to motor neuron degeneration in amyotrophic lateral sclerosis (ALS). Recent reports indicate that astrocytes expressing the mutations of superoxide dismutase-1 (SOD1) may contribute to motor neuron injury in ALS. Here, we provide evidence that mitochondrial dysfunction in SOD1(G93A) rat astrocytes causes astrocytes to induce apoptosis of motor neurons. Mitochondria from SOD1(G93A) rat astrocytes displayed a defective respiratory function, including decreased oxygen consumption, lack of ADP-dependent respiratory control, and decreased membrane potential. Protein 3-nitrotyrosine was detected immunochemically in mitochondrial proteins from SOD1(G93A) astrocytes, suggesting that mitochondrial defects were associated with nitroxidative damage. Furthermore, superoxide radical formation in mitochondria was increased in SOD1(G93A) astrocytes. Similar defects were found in mitochondria isolated from the spinal cord of SOD1(G93A) rats, and pretreatment of animals with the spin trap 5,5-dimethyl-1-pyrroline N-oxide restored mitochondrial function, forming adducts with mitochondrial proteins in vivo. As shown previously, SOD1(G93A) astrocytes induced death of motor neurons in cocultures, compared with nontransgenic ones. This behavior was recapitulated when nontransgenic astrocytes were treated with mitochondrial inhibitors. Remarkably, motor neuron loss was prevented by preincubation of SOD1(G93A) astrocytes with antioxidants and nitric oxide synthase inhibitors. In particular, low concentrations (approximately 10 nm) of two mitochondrial-targeted antioxidants, ubiquinone and carboxy-proxyl nitroxide, each covalently coupled to a triphenylphosphonium cation (Mito-Q and Mito-CP, respectively), prevented mitochondrial dysfunction, reduced superoxide production in SOD1(G93A) astrocytes, and restored motor neuron survival. Together, our results indicate that mitochondrial dysfunction in astrocytes critically influences motor neuron survival and support the potential pharmacological utility of mitochondrial-targeted antioxidants in ALS treatment.
Assuntos
Antioxidantes/administração & dosagem , Astrócitos/enzimologia , Mitocôndrias/enzimologia , Neurônios Motores/enzimologia , Degeneração Neural/enzimologia , Superóxido Dismutase/genética , Substituição de Aminoácidos/genética , Esclerose Lateral Amiotrófica/metabolismo , Esclerose Lateral Amiotrófica/patologia , Esclerose Lateral Amiotrófica/prevenção & controle , Animais , Animais Geneticamente Modificados , Astrócitos/efeitos dos fármacos , Astrócitos/patologia , Células Cultivadas , Sistemas de Liberação de Medicamentos/métodos , Mitocôndrias/efeitos dos fármacos , Mitocôndrias/metabolismo , Neurônios Motores/efeitos dos fármacos , Neurônios Motores/patologia , Degeneração Neural/genética , Degeneração Neural/prevenção & controle , Ratos , Ratos Sprague-Dawley , Superóxido Dismutase/fisiologiaRESUMO
Nerve growth factor (NGF) can induce apoptosis by signaling through the p75 neurotrophin receptor (p75(NTR)) in several nerve cell populations. Cultured embryonic motor neurons expressing p75(NTR) are not vulnerable to NGF unless they are exposed to an exogenous flux of nitric oxide (*NO). In the present study, we show that p75(NTR)-mediated apoptosis in motor neurons involved neutral sphingomyelinase activation, increased mitochondrial superoxide production, and cytochrome c release to the cytosol. The mitochondria-targeted antioxidants mitoQ and mitoCP prevented neuronal loss, further evidencing the role of mitochondria in NGF-induced apoptosis. In motor neurons overexpressing the amyotrophic lateral sclerosis (ALS)-linked superoxide dismutase 1(G93A) (SOD1(G93A)) mutation, NGF induced apoptosis even in the absence of an external source of *NO. The increased susceptibility of SOD1(G93A) motor neurons to NGF was associated to decreased nuclear factor erythroid 2-related factor 2 (Nrf2) expression and downregulation of the enzymes involved in glutathione biosynthesis. In agreement, depletion of glutathione in nontransgenic motor neurons reproduced the effect of SOD1(G93A) expression, increasing their sensitivity to NGF. In contrast, rising antioxidant defenses by Nrf2 activation prevented NGF-induced apoptosis. Together, our data indicate that p75(NTR)-mediated motor neuron apoptosis involves ceramide-dependent increased mitochondrial superoxide production. This apoptotic pathway is facilitated by the expression of ALS-linked SOD1 mutations and critically modulated by Nrf2 activity.
Assuntos
Apoptose/fisiologia , Mitocôndrias/metabolismo , Neurônios Motores/fisiologia , Fator 2 Relacionado a NF-E2/metabolismo , Receptor de Fator de Crescimento Neural/metabolismo , Medula Espinal/citologia , Animais , Animais Geneticamente Modificados , Apoptose/efeitos dos fármacos , Células Cultivadas , Citocromos c/metabolismo , Embrião de Mamíferos , Ativação Enzimática/efeitos dos fármacos , Inibidores Enzimáticos/farmacologia , Regulação da Expressão Gênica/efeitos dos fármacos , Regulação da Expressão Gênica/fisiologia , Mitocôndrias/efeitos dos fármacos , Neurônios Motores/efeitos dos fármacos , Fator de Crescimento Neural/farmacologia , Doadores de Óxido Nítrico/farmacologia , Compostos Nitrosos/farmacologia , Oligodesoxirribonucleotídeos Antissenso/farmacologia , Ratos , Ratos Sprague-Dawley , Espécies Reativas de Oxigênio/metabolismo , Esfingomielina Fosfodiesterase/metabolismo , Superóxido Dismutase/genética , Superóxido Dismutase/farmacologiaRESUMO
Nerve growth factor (NGF) overexpression and increased production of peroxynitrite occur in several neurodegenerative diseases. We investigated whether NGF could undergo posttranslational oxidative or nitrative modifications that would modulate its biological activity. Compared to native NGF, peroxynitrite-treated NGF showed an exceptional ability to induce p75(NTR)-dependent motor neuron apoptosis at physiologically relevant concentrations. Whereas native NGF requires an external source of nitric oxide (NO) to induce motor neuron death, peroxynitrite-treated NGF induced motor neuron apoptosis in the absence of exogenous NO. Nevertheless, NO potentiated the apoptotic activity of peroxynitrite-modified NGF. Blocking antibodies to p75(NTR) or downregulation of p75(NTR) expression by antisense treatment prevented motor neuron apoptosis induced by peroxynitrite-treated NGF. We investigated what oxidative modifications were responsible for inducing a toxic gain of function and found that peroxynitrite induced tyrosine nitration in a dose-dependent manner. Moreover, peroxynitrite triggered the formation of stable high-molecular-weight oligomers of NGF. Preventing tyrosine nitration by urate abolished the effect of peroxynitrite on NGF apoptotic activity. These results indicate that the oxidation of NGF by peroxynitrite enhances NGF apoptotic activity through p75(NTR) 10,000-fold. To our knowledge, this is the first known posttranslational modification that transforms a neurotrophin into an apoptotic agent.