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BACKGROUND: The elevated blood pressure (BP) and lower cardiac autonomic modulation (CAM) are associated with higher morbidity mortality risk among older adults. Although exercise is an important intervention for cardiovascular promotion, it is unclear whether combat sports training could benefit cardiovascular outcomes as much as autonomic in this population. This study compared the effects of 12 weeks of Muay Thai (MT) training against functional training (FT) on CAM and hemodynamic parameters in older adults. METHODS: The sample consisted of 50 older adults (41 women; 66.0 ± 5.3 years old), who were equaly randomized into FT (n = 25) and MT (n = 25) intervention groups. CAM was measured by 30-min rest heart rate variability. Systolic blood pressure (SBP), diastolic blood pressure (DBP) and resting heart rate (RHR) were measured using an automatic oscillometric device. Pulse pressure (PP) and the double product (DP) were also calculated. The interventions were carried out three times a week, with 60-min length per session, during 12 consecutive weeks. The intensity of the interventions was measured using the subjective perception of exertion scale and by accelerometer. Two-factor repeated measures analysis of covariance was used for groups comparison, considering intervention group and body mass as factors. The 95% confidence interval of the difference (95%CIdif) was also calculated and the effect size was measured using partial eta squared (η2p). RESULTS: CAM indices did not show significant changes across moments and intervention groups. In hemodynamic parameters, only in DBP was there an effect of the moment (F1,39 = 8.206; P = 0.007; η2p = 0.174, large) and interaction effect between group*moment (F1,39 = 7.950; P = 0.008; η2p = 0.169, large). Specifically, the MT group at the post-training moment showed lower DBP (P = 0.010; 95%CIdif = -13.3; -1.89) in relation to the FT group. Furthermore, the MT group showed a decrease in DBP during training (P = 0.002; 95%CIdif = -10.3; -2.6). Also, an increase in training intensity was also found over the 12 weeks in FT, with no difference between the groups. CONCLUSION: After 12 weeks of MT practice there was a reduction in DBP compared to FT in older adults. TRIAL REGISTRATION: NCT03919968 Registration date: 01/02/2019.

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ABSTRACT: Nunes, JP, Blazevich, AJ, Schoenfeld, BJ, Kassiano, W, Costa, BDV, Ribeiro, AS, Nakamura, M, Nosaka, K, and Cyrino, ES. Determining changes in muscle size and architecture after exercise training: One site does not fit all. J Strength Cond Res 38(4): 787-790, 2024-Different methods can be used to assess muscle hypertrophy, but the effects of training on regional changes in muscle size can be detected only using direct muscle measurements such as muscle thickness, cross-sectional area, or volume. Importantly, muscle size increases vary across regions within and between muscles after resistance training programs (i.e., heterogeneous, or nonuniform, muscle hypertrophy). Muscle architectural changes, including fascicle length and pennation angle, after resistance and stretch training programs are also region-specific. In this paper, we show that the literature indicates that a single-site measure of muscle shape does not properly capture the effects achieved after exercise training interventions and that conclusions concerning the magnitude of muscle adaptations can vary substantially depending on the muscle site to be examined. Thus, we propose that measurements of muscle size and architecture should be completed at multiple sites across regions between the agonist muscles within a muscle group and along the length of the muscles to provide an adequate picture of training effects.

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This study's purpose was to compare the effects of different carbohydrate (CHO) intakes on body composition and muscular strength following eight weeks of resistance training (RT) in pre-conditioned men. In addition, we explored the individual responses to different CHO intakes. Twenty-nine young men volunteered to participate in this study. The participants were divided into two groups according to their relative CHO intake: lower (L-CHO; n = 14) and higher (H-CHO; n = 15). Participants performed a RT program four days a week for eight weeks. The lean soft tissue (LST) and fat mass were determined by dual-energy X-ray absorptiometry. Muscular strength was determined by a one-repetition maximum (1RM) test in the bench press, squat, and arm curl exercises. Both groups increased LST (P < 0.05) with no statistical differences between conditions (L-CHO = +0.8% vs. H-CHO = +3.5%). Neither group demonstrated changes in fat mass. Both groups increased 1RM (P < 0.05) in the bench press (L-CHO = +3.6% vs. H-CHO = +5.8%) and squat (L-CHO = +7.5% vs. H-CHO = +9.4%); however, only H-CHO significantly increased arm curl 1RM (P < 0.05) at post-training (L-CHO = +3.0% vs. H-CHO = +6.6%). Responsiveness was greater in H-CHO vs. L-CHO for LST and arm curl 1RM. In conclusion, lower and higher CHO intakes promote similar increase in LST and muscular strength; however, a greater intake may improve the responsiveness to gains in lean mass and arm curl strength in pre-conditioned men.

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PURPOSE: The optimal intensity of resistance training (RT) to improve muscular, physical performance, and metabolic adaptations still needs to be well established for older adults. Based on current position statements, we compared the effects of two different RT loads on muscular strength, functional performance, skeletal muscle mass, hydration status, and metabolic biomarkers in older women. METHODS: One hundred one older women were randomly allocated to perform a 12-wk whole-body RT program (eight exercises, three sets, three nonconsecutive days a week) into two groups: 8-12 repetitions maximum (RM) and 10-15RM. Muscular strength (1RM tests), physical performance (motor tests), skeletal muscle mass (dual-energy X-ray absorptiometry), hydration status (bioelectrical impedance), and metabolic biomarkers (glucose, total cholesterol, HDL-c, HDL-c, triglycerides, and C-reactive protein) were measured at baseline and posttraining. RESULTS: Regarding muscular strength, 8-12RM promoted higher 1RM increases in chest press (+23.2% vs +10.7%, P < 0.01) and preacher curl (+15.7% vs +7.4%, P < 0.01), but not in leg extension (+14.9% vs +12.3%, P > 0.05). Both groups improved functional performance ( P < 0.05) in gait speed (4.6%-5.6%), 30 s chair stand (4.6%-5.9%), and 6 min walking (6.7%-7.0%) tests, with no between-group differences ( P > 0.05). The 10-15RM group elicited superior improves in the hydration status (total body water, intracellular and extracellular water; P < 0.01), and higher gains of skeletal muscle mass (2.5% vs 6.3%, P < 0.01), upper (3.9% vs 9.0%, P < 0.01) and lower limbs lean soft tissue (2.1% vs 5.4%, P < 0.01). Both groups improved their metabolic profile. However, 10-15RM elicited greater glucose reductions (-0.2% vs -4.9%, P < 0.05) and greater HDL-c increases (-0.2% vs +4.7%, P < 0.01), with no between-group differences for the other metabolic biomarkers ( P > 0.05). CONCLUSIONS: Our results suggest that 8-2RM seems more effective than 10-15RM for increasing upper limbs' muscular strength, whereas the adaptative responses for lower limbs and functional performance appear similar in older women. In contrast, 10-15RM seems more effective for skeletal muscle mass gains, and increased intracellular hydration and improvements in metabolic profile may accompany this adaptation.

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ABSTRACT: Kassiano, W, Costa, B, Nunes, JP, Ribeiro, AS, Schoenfeld, BJ, and Cyrino, ES. Which ROMs lead to Rome? a systematic review of the effects of range of motion on muscle hypertrophy. J Strength Cond Res 37(5): 1135-1144, 2022-Resistance exercise range of motion (ROM) influences muscular adaptations. However, there are no consistent practical guidelines about the optimal ROM for maximizing muscle hypertrophy. The objective of this article was to systematically review the literature for studies that compared the effects of full ROM (fROM) and partial ROM (pROM) on muscle hypertrophy. PubMed/MEDLINE, Scopus, and Web of Science databases were searched to identify articles from the earliest record up to and including April 2022. We calculated the effect size (ES) scores of the variables of interest. Eleven studies were included in the review. Full ROM and pROM performed in the initial part of the ROM elicited greater muscle hypertrophy of the rectus femoris, vastus lateralis, biceps brachii, and brachialis distal sites (between-groups ES: 0.20-0.90) than pROM performed in the final part of the ROM. fROM elicited greater muscle growth on the gluteus maximus and adductors than pROM in the final part of the ROM (between-groups ES: 0.24-0.25). Initial pROM produced more favorable proximal rectus femoris hypertrophy than fROM (between-groups ES: 0.35-0.38). pROM in the middle part of the ROM elicited greater triceps brachii hypertrophy than fROM (between-group ES: 1.21). In conclusion, evidence suggests that when training at a longer muscle length-through either pROM or fROM-some muscles, such as quadriceps femoris, biceps brachii, and triceps brachii, tend to experience optimal growth. Thus, the use pROM in the initial part of the excursion in combination with fROM training should be considered when prescribing hypertrophy-oriented resistance training programs.

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AIMS: The concomitant increase in skeletal muscle mass (SMM) and decrease in fat mass has been termed body recomposition. This study aimed to analyze the influence of pre-training levels of fat mass on body recomposition, muscular strength, and (phase angle) PhA after 24 weeks of resistance training (RT) in older women. METHODS: Data from 99 older women (68.6 ± 5.7 years, 65.7 ± 8.6 kg, 155.1 ± 5.8 cm, 27.2 ± 3.1 kg/m2) was retrospectively analyzed. Participants were separated into tertiles according to the amount of fat mass at baseline as follows: low fat mass (L-FM, n = 33), moderate fat mass (M-FM, n = 33), and high fat mass (H-FM, n = 33). The participants underwent a RT program consisting of eight exercises, three sets per exercise, with a load between 8 and 15 RM, performed three times per week for 24 weeks. The SMM and fat mass were evaluated by dual-energy X-ray absorptiometry (DXA). Body recomposition was determined by the composite Z-score of changes in SMM and fat mass. One repetition maximum (1RM) tests in chest press, knee extension, and preacher curl were assessed to verify muscular strength. Bioimpedance was used to determine phase angle. RESULTS: Results indicated that after the RT period, a greater positive body recomposition was observed in the L-FM group than in M-FM and H-FM groups. Moreover, all groups increased muscular strength and phase angle with no significant difference among groups (P > 0.05). CONCLUSION: The present study results suggest that the initial amount of fat mass influences the body recomposition induced by RT in older women, with those with lower pre-training fat mass levels presenting higher levels of body recomposition. However, improvements in muscular strength and phase angle are not dependent on the amount of initial fat mass in older women.

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ABSTRACT: Nunes, JP, Marcori, AJ, Ribeiro, AS, Cunha, PM, Kassiano, W, Costa, BDV, Aguiar, AF, Nakamura, M, Mayhew, JL, and Cyrino, ES. Differential responsiveness for strength gain between limbs after resistance training in older women: Impact on interlimb asymmetry reduction. J Strength Cond Res 36(11): 3209-3216, 2022-The present study compared strength responses between preferred (PREF) and nonpreferred (N-PREF) legs in older women. Muscular strength was measured unilaterally using an isokinetic dynamometer and was analyzed for reproducibility scores, acute performance, and responsiveness to a resistance training (RT) program. One hundred eleven women (aged ≥60 years) performed 12 weeks of whole-body RT (3 times a week; 4 lower-body exercises). Reproducibility scores (intraclass correlation coefficient ≥0.920; following test-retests in part of the sample at pretraining; n = 19), average acute performances, and average strength gains (PREF = ∼6.9%; N-PREF = ∼7.2%) were similar between legs (p > 0.05). However, the individual analyses showed that some subjects were considered responders to strength gains in 1 leg, whereas nonresponders in the other. Nonetheless, when considering the responses in all strength tests, most subjects (91%) were considered responder to at least 1 measure. In addition, it was observed that the strength ratio between PREF/N-PREF legs was altered for those who presented some asymmetry at baseline, as the limbs became more symmetrical in all strength measures after the RT. In conclusion, we observed that some older women may have different levels of strength between legs; however, a traditional 12-week RT program with bilateral exercises can reduce such asymmetry by inducing greater strength gains in the weaker leg.

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ABSTRACT: Kassiano, W, Nunes, JP, Costa, B, Ribeiro, AS, Schoenfeld, BJ, and Cyrino, ES. Does varying resistance exercises promote superior muscle hypertrophy and strength gains? A systematic review. J Strength Cond Res 36(6): 1753-1762, 2022-Fitness professionals routinely employ a variety of resistance training exercises in program design as a strategy to enhance muscular adaptations. However, it remains uncertain whether such an approach offers advantages over a fixed-exercise selection. The objective of this review was to review the effects of exercise variation on muscle hypertrophy and strength. A search of the literature was conducted using PubMed/MEDLINE, Scopus, and Web of Science databases. Eight studies were identified as meeting inclusion criteria. The combined total sample of the studies was N = 241, comprising all young men. The methodological quality of included studies was considered "good" and "excellent" based on the Physiotherapy Evidence Database Scale. The available studies indicate that varying exercise selection can influence muscle hypertrophy and strength gains. Some degree of systematic variation seems to enhance regional hypertrophic adaptations and maximize dynamic strength, whereas excessive, random variation may compromise muscular gains. We conclude that exercise variation should be approached systematically with a focus on applied anatomical and biomechanical constructs; on the contrary, employing different exercises that provide a redundant stimulus, as well as excessive rotation of different exercises (i.e., high frequency of change), may actually hinder muscular adaptations.

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The present study analyzed the effects from day-before to day-of bodybuilding competition on intracellular water (ICW), extracellular water (ECW), total body water (TBW), and bioimpedance analysis (BIA) parameters (resistance, R; reactance, Xc; and derived scores) in bodybuilding athletes. We assessed anthropometry and BIA (foot-to-hand; tetrapolar; 50 kHz) in 11 male bodybuilders (29 ± 4 year-old; 81 ± 8 kg; 172 ± 7 cm; 27 ± 2 kg/m2) both on the pre-competition day and on the contest day. Results revealed significant increases in ICW (31.6 ± 2.9 to 33.1 ± 2.8 L), with concomitant decreases in ECW (19.8 ± 1.8 to 17.2 ± 1.4 L) and TBW (51.4 ± 4.6 to 50.3 ± 4.2 L) from the day-before competition to contest day, which resulted in relatively large increases in the ICW/ECW ratio (1.60 ± 0.03 to 1.92 ± 0.01 L). Moreover, significant increases in R (391 ± 34 to 413 ± 33 ohm), Xc (64 ± 7 to 70 ± 6 ohm), and phase angle (9.3 ± 0.6 to 9.6 ± 0.7 degree) were observed between time periods. The phase angle scores reported on show-day of 9.6 and 11.2 appear to be the highest group mean and individual values observed in the literature to date. In conclusion, the strategies carried out on the final day of peak-week bodybuilding preparation lead to changes in BIA parameters and body water, with fluids shifting from the extra- to the intracellular compartment.

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ABSTRACT: Cunha, PM, Ribeiro, AS, Padilha, C, Nunes, JP, Schoenfeld, BJ, Cyrino, LT, Tomeleri, CM, Nascimento, MA, Antunes, M, Fernandes, RR, Barbosa, DS, Venturini, D, Burini, RC, Sardinha, LB, and Cyrino, ES. Improvement of oxidative stress in older women is dependent on resistance training volume: Active aging longitudinal study. J Strength Cond Res 36(4): 1141-1146, 2022-The purpose of the present study was to investigate the effects of resistance training (RT) performed with a higher versus lower training volume on oxidative stress (OS) biomarkers in older women. Thirty-eight older women (≥60 years) were randomly assigned to 1 of 2 groups: a group that performed 1 set per exercise (low volume [LV], n = 18) or 3 sets per exercise (high volume [HV], n = 20). The whole-body RT consisted of a 12-week RT program involving 8 exercises performed with sets of 10-15 repetitions maximum, 3 days per week. Advanced oxidation protein products (AOPP), total radical-trapping antioxidant parameter (TRAP), and ferrous oxidation-xylenol orange (FOX) were used as OS biomarkers. The composite Z-score of the percentage changes from pre- to posttraining of OS biomarkers according to groups was calculated. A significant main effect of time (p < 0.05) was found for AOPP (LV = -7.3% vs. HV = -12.2%) and TRAP (LV = +1.5% vs. HV = +15.5%) concentrations, without a statistical difference between the groups (p > 0.05). A significant group vs. time interaction (p < 0.001) was revealed for FOX (LV = +6.4% vs. HV = -8.9%). The overall analysis indicated higher positive changes for HV than LV (composed Z-score: HV = 0.41 ± 1.22 vs. LV = -0.37 ± 1.03; p < 0.05). Our results suggest that a greater volume of RT seems to promote superior improvements on OS biomarkers in older women.

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PURPOSE: Resistance training (RT) combined with appropriate dietary intake can promote a concomitant increase in skeletal muscle mass (SMM) and reduction in fat mass, a condition termed body recomposition. This study's primary purpose was to explore the effects of protein ingestion on body recomposition after 24 wk of RT in older women. METHODS: Data from 130 untrained older women (68.7 ± 5.6 yr, 66.5 ± 11.5 kg, 155.5 ± 6.0 cm, and 27.4 ± 4.0 kg·m-2) across six studies were retrospectively analyzed. The participants were divided into tertiles according to their customary protein intake (g·kg-1·d-1): lower (LP; n = 45), moderate (MP; n = 42), and higher (HP; n = 43) protein intake. Participants performed a whole-body RT program carried out over 24 wk (eight exercises, three sets, 8-15 repetitions, three sessions a week). SMM and fat mass were determined by dual-energy x-ray absorptiometry. RESULTS: All groups increased SMM from baseline (P < 0.05), with the HP and MP groups showing greater increases than the LP group (LP, 2.3%; MP, 5.4%; and HP, 5.1%; P < 0.05). Reductions in fat mass were similar for all three groups (LP, 1.7%; MP, 3.7%; and HP, 3.1%; P > 0.05). The composite z-score of the percentage changes from pretraining to posttraining indicated greater positive body recomposition values for HP and MP compared with LP (P < 0.05). CONCLUSIONS: Results suggest that protein intake is a moderating variable for body recomposition in older women undergoing RT, with a low protein intake having a less favorable effect on body recomposition.

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The purpose of this study was to investigate the effects of supplementation of whey protein (WP) versus leucine-matched collagen peptides (CP) on muscle thickness MT and performance after a resistance training (RT) program in young adults. Twenty-two healthy untrained participants were randomly assigned to either a WP (n = 11) or leucine-matched CP (n = 11) group and then submitted to a supervised 10-week RT program (3 days/week). The groups were supplemented with an equivalent amount of WP (35 g, containing 3.0 g of leucine) and CP (35 g, containing 1.0 g of leucine and 2.0 g of free leucine) during the intervention period (after each workout and in the evening on nontraining days). MT of the vastus lateralis and biceps brachii, isokinetic peak torque and mean power output of the elbow flexors, and peak power output of the lower body were assessed before and after the RT program. The WP group experienced a greater (interaction, p < .05) increase in the vastus lateralis (effect size, WP = 0.68 vs. CP = 0.38; % Δ, WP = 8.4 ± 2.5 vs. CP = 5.6 ± 2.6%) and biceps brachii muscle thickness (effect size, WP = 0.61 vs. CP = 0.35; % , WP = 10.1 ± 3.8 vs. CP = 6.0 ± 3.2%), with a similar increase in muscle performance (peak torque, mean power output, and peak power output) between groups (time p < .05). Supplementation with WP was superior to leucine content-matched CP supplementation in increasing muscle size, but not strength and power, after a 10-week RT program in young adults.

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AIMS: The main purpose of the present study was to investigate the acute effects of different resistance training loads on the session rating of perceived exertion (sRPE) and feelings of pleasure displeasure (sFPD) of the session in older women. METHODS: In a randomized, counterbalanced, and cross-over design, 16 older women (66.1 ± 3.9 years, 67.0 ± 8.4 kg, 154.1 ± 6.8 cm, 28.3 ± 4.4 kg/m2) performed 3 sets of 8 exercises in three experimental conditions, 1 session with a heavy load (HEV), one with a moderate load (MOD), and one session with a light load (LIT), all performed until momentary muscle failure. The sRPE and sFPD were assessed 15 min after the end of each session using specific scales. RESULTS: A significant difference (P < 0.05) was observed among conditions for sFPD in which HEV produced feelings of displeasure, and MOD produced greater feelings of pleasure (HEV = -1.38 ± 1.7, MOD = 3.38 ± 1.2, LIT = 0.69 ± 1.04). For sRPE, a significant (P < 0.05) difference was observed between MOD and LIT; whereby the LIT load induced a greater score compared to the MOD load (HEV = 4.56 ± 1.4, MOD = 4.31 ± 1.7, LIT = 5.75 ± 1.2). CONCLUSION: Our results suggest that the training load affects perceived effort and feelings of pleasure/displeasure when exercise is performed until concentric failure. The use of moderate loads induces greater pleasure feelings and a reduced degree of effort in older women.

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ABSTRACT: Ribeiro, AS, Picoloto, A, Nunes, JP, Bezerra, ES, Schoenfeld, BJ, and Cyrino, ES. Effects of different resistance training loads on the muscle quality index in older women. J Strength Cond Res 36(5): 1445-1449, 2022-The purpose of this study was to investigate the effects of resistance training (RT) performed using low vs. moderate loads on muscular strength, muscle mass, and muscle quality index (MQI) in older women. Twenty-seven older women (71.5 ± 5 years, 65.2 ± 11 kg, 154.2 ± 5 cm, and 27.4 ± 4 kg·m-2) were randomized into 2 groups: one that performed RT with a low load (LOW, n = 13) and another that performed RT with a moderate load (MOD, n = 14). An 8-week RT program was performed 3 d·wk-1. Outcomes included 1-repetition maximum (1RM) tests and assessment of body composition by dual-energy X-ray absorptiometry. The LOW load consisted of a relative load at 15RM, whereas the MOD load consisted of a relative load at 10RM. Both groups presented significant changes from pre-training to post-training for chest press 1RM (LOW = 10.3%, and MOD = 11.1%), knee extension 1RM (LOW = 14.4%, and MOD = 16.6%), preacher curl 1RM (LOW = 12.4%, and MOD = 12.0%), fat-free mass (LOW = 2.1%, and MOD = 1.9%), body fat (LOW = -3.2%, and MOD = -2.7%), and MQI (LOW = 10.6%, and MOD = 11.3%). Results were similar (p > 0.05) between groups. These findings suggest that LOW and MOD loads are equally effective for promoting improvements in muscular strength and muscle growth as well as the MQI in older women.

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ABSTRACT: Amarante do Nascimento, M, Nunes, JPA, Pina, FLC, Ribeiro, AS, Carneiro, NH, Venturini, D, Barbosa, DS, Mayhew, JL, and Cyrino, ES. Comparison of 2 weekly frequencies of resistance training on muscular strength, body composition, and metabolic biomarkers in resistance-trained older women: Effects of detraining and retraining. J Strength Cond Res 36(5): 1437-1444, 2022-This study aimed to compare the effects of 2 weekly frequencies of resistance training (RT) on muscular strength, body composition, and metabolic biomarkers in previously resistance-trained older women after detraining and retraining. Forty subjects (>60 years) performed RT (8 exercises, 1 set of 10-15 repetitions maximum) 2 (G2x) or 3 (G3x) times per week over 12 weeks of training and retraining. After training, subjects were detrained for 12 weeks. After detraining, there were significant decreases (p < 0.05) in upper-body (∼12%) and lower-body (∼14%) muscular strength, fat-free mass (FFM) (∼2%), and testosterone (∼26%), whereas increases were revealed for fat mass (FM) (∼4%), relative body fat (∼3%), fasting glucose (∼8%), low-density lipoprotein cholesterol (LDL-C) (∼21%), and triglycerides (∼24%), with no differences between groups (p > 0.05). Following retraining, there were significant increases (p < 0.05) for upper (∼7%) and lower (∼10%) muscular strength, FFM (∼2%), and testosterone (∼20%). In contrast, decreases were found for FM (∼7%), relative body fat (∼3%), fasting glucose (∼6%), LDL-C (∼14%), and triglycerides (∼21%), also with no differences between groups (p > 0.05). Gains after retraining were lower than after training (p < 0.05) only for upper- and lower-body muscular strength (∼6%) and testosterone (∼11%). Total cholesterol, high-density lipoprotein cholesterol, IGF-1, and C-reactive protein did not change at any point in the study for either group (p > 0.05). Our results suggest that older women can regain previous RT program benefits following detraining, regardless of the weekly training frequency. However, some fitness components may take longer to reestablish than the initial training level.

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We compared the effects of different resistance training (RT) volume reduction strategies on muscular strength and lean soft-tissue (LST) in older women. Fifty-seven physically independent women (>60 years) performed a 20-week pre-conditioning phase of a standardized whole-body RT program (eight exercises, three sets, 8-12 repetitions, three sessions a week), and were then randomly assigned to one of the following conditions: reduced volume for a single set (RV1, n=20) or two sets (RV2, n=19), or maintained volume of three sets (MV, n=18) for 8 weeks (specific training phase). Muscular strength in the chest press, leg extension, and preacher curl exercises was determined by one-repetition maximum tests. A dual-energy X-ray absorptiometry device was used to estimate LST. An increase in muscular strength (16.3-32.1%) and LST (3.2-7.9%) was observed after the pre-conditioning phase. There was an increase in chest press for all groups (9.4-16.7%) after the specific training phase. In contrast, only MV increased significantly in the leg extension (4.4%). No between-group differences were revealed for LST in the specific training phase. Our results suggest that reduced RT volume from three to one set per exercise for 8 weeks seems sufficient to retain neuromuscular adaptations in older women.

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This study aimed to investigate the effects of free leucine supplementation on muscle recovery from resistance exercise (RE) in young adults. Fourteen untrained subjects (23.9 ± 3.6 years old) underwent RE sessions (leg press and hack squat: three sets of 8-12 reps at 70% 1RM) supplemented with leucine (LEU: two daily doses of 3g) or a placebo (PLA), separated by a seven-day washout period. Following each occasion, participants were evaluated in three subsequent days (24h, 48h, and 72h) for muscle recovery via a repetition-to-failure test. The following markers were assessed: repetition performance, perceived exertion, lactate, creatine kinase, muscle soreness (DOMS), testosterone, and cortisol. No significant difference was observed between LEU and PLA conditions (p > 0.05). Number of repetitions performed in the repetition-to-failure tests, perceived exertion, cortisol, and testosterone:cortisol ratio did not change over time (p > 0.05). Creatine kinase increased immediately after exercise, at 24h, and 48h, and was attenuated at 72h post-exercise, while testosterone, lactate, and DOMS increased at 24h post-exercise (p < 0.05) and remained elevated up to 72h. All outcomes were similar between LEU and PLA. Results indicate that a 6g daily dose of free leucine supplementation does not improve muscle recovery following lower-limb RE in untrained young adults.

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Calculating resistance-training volume in programs focused on muscle hypertrophy is an attempt to quantify the external workload carried out, then to estimate the dose of stimulus imposed on targeted muscles. The volume is usually expressed in some variables that directly affected the total training work, such as the number of sets, repetitions, and volume-load. These variables are used to try to quantify the training work easily, for the subsequent organization and prescription of training programs. One of the main uses of measures of volume quantification is seen in studies in which the purpose is to compare the effects of different training protocols on muscle growth in a volume-equated format. However, it seems that not all measures of volume are always appropriate for equating training protocols. In the current paper, it is discussed what training volume is and the potentials and shortcomings of each one of the most common ways to equate it between groups depending on the independent variable to be compared (e.g., weekly frequency, intensity of load, and advanced techniques).

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The objectives of this paper were to: (a) systematically review studies that explored the effects of exercise order (EO) on muscular strength and/or hypertrophy; (b) pool their results using a meta-analysis; and (c) provide recommendations for the prescription of EO in resistance training (RT) programmes. A literature search was performed in four databases. Studies were included if they explored the effects of EO on dynamic muscular strength and/or muscle hypertrophy. The meta-analysis was performed using a random-effects model with Hedges' g effect size (ES). The methodological quality of studies was appraised using the TESTEX checklist. Eleven good-to-excellent methodological quality studies were included in the review. When all strength tests, that is, both in multi-joint (MJ) and single-joint (SJ) exercises were considered, there was no difference between the EOs (ES = -0.11; p = 0.306). However, there was a difference between the MJ-to-SJ and SJ-to-MJ orders for strength gains in the MJ exercises, favouring starting the exercise session with MJ exercises (ES = 0.32; p = 0.034), and the strength gains in the SJ exercises, favouring starting the exercise session with SJ exercises (ES = -0.58; p = 0.032). No significant effect of EO was observed for hypertrophy combining site-specific and indirect measures (ES = 0.03; p = 0.862). In conclusion, increases in muscular strength are the largest in the exercises performed at the beginning of an exercise session. For muscle hypertrophy, our meta-analysis indicated that both MJ-to-SJ and SJ-to-MJ EOs may produce similar results.

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