RESUMO
Small extracellular vesicles are nanosized vesicles (30-200 nm) that can ferry proteins, nucleic acids, and lipids between cells and therefore, have significant potential as biomarkers, drug delivery tools or therapeutic agents. SEVs of endothelial origin have been shown to -among other functions-reduce in vitro ischemia/reperfusion (I/R) injury in cardiomyocytes, but whether a pro-inflammatory state of the endothelium impairs the functionality of these SEVs remains to be elucidated. To test this, human umbilical vein endothelial cells cells were treated with TNF-α 10 ng/mL and the expression of the pro-inflammatory parameters VCAM-1, ICAM-1 and eNOS were determined by Western blot. SEVs were isolated from endothelial cells treated with or without TNF-α 10 ng/mL using size exclusion chromatography. The size and concentration of SEVs was measured by Nanoparticle Tracking Analysis. The expression of the surface marker CD81 was determined by immunoassay, whereas their morphology was assessed by electron microscopy. The function of endothelial SEVs was assessed by evaluating their cardioprotective effect in an ex vivo model of global I/R using isolated hearts from adult C57BL/6 mice. Treatment of HUVECs with TNF-α induced the expression of VCAM-1 and ICAM-1, whereas eNOS levels were decreased. TNF-α did not affect the production, size, morphology, or expression of CD81. SEVs significantly reduced the infarct size as compared with untreated mice hearts, but SEVs isolated from TNF-α treated cells were unable to achieve this effect. Therefore, a pro-inflammatory state induced by TNF-α does not alter the production of endothelial SEVs but impairs their function in the setting of I/R injury.
RESUMO
Despite important advances in the treatment of myocardial infarction that have significantly reduced mortality, there is still an unmet need to limit the infarct size after reperfusion injury in order to prevent the onset and severity of heart failure. Multiple cardioprotective maneuvers, therapeutic targets, peptides and drugs have been developed to effectively protect the myocardium from reperfusion-induced cell death in preclinical studies. Nonetheless, the translation of these therapies from laboratory to clinical contexts has been quite challenging. Comorbidities, comedications or inadequate ischemia/reperfusion experimental models are clearly identified variables that need to be accounted for in order to achieve effective cardioprotection studies. The aging heart is characterized by altered proteostasis, DNA instability, epigenetic changes, among others. A vast number of studies has shown that multiple therapeutic strategies, such as ischemic conditioning phenomena and protective drugs are unable to protect the aged heart from myocardial infarction. In this Mini-Review, we will provide an updated state of the art concerning potential new cardioprotective strategies targeting the aging heart.
RESUMO
Despite considerable improvements in the treatment of myocardial infarction, it is still a highly prevalent disease worldwide. Novel therapeutic strategies to limit infarct size are required to protect myocardial function and thus, avoid heart failure progression. Cardioprotection is a research topic with significant achievements in the context of basic science. However, translation of the beneficial effects of protective approaches from bench to bedside has proven difficult. Therefore, there is still an unmet need to study new avenues leading to protecting the myocardium against infarction. In line with this, the endothelium is an essential component of the cardiovascular system with multiple therapeutic targets with cardioprotective potential. Endothelial cells are the most abundant non-myocyte cell type in the heart and are key players in cardiovascular physiology and pathophysiology. These cells can regulate vascular tone, angiogenesis, hemostasis, and inflammation. Accordingly, endothelial dysfunction plays a fundamental role in cardiovascular diseases, which may ultimately lead to myocardial infarction. The endothelium is of paramount importance to protect the myocardium from ischemia/reperfusion injury via conditioning strategies or cardioprotective drugs. This review will provide updated information on the most promising therapeutic agents and protective approaches targeting endothelial cells in the context of myocardial infarction.
RESUMO
En 31 de diciembre del 2019 la Organización Mundial de la Salud fue informada por las autoridades sanitarias chinas de la aparición de casos de neumonía de origen desconocido en la ciudad de Wuhan en China. El 7 de Enero de 2020, científicos chinos identificaron a un nuevo coronavirus (temporalmente designado como "2019-nCoV") como el agente etiológico de la enfermedad denominada COVID-19. La secuenciación del genoma del nuevo coronavirus mostró gran similitud con el coronavirus (Covid-1 o SARS-CoV) causante del síndrome respiratorio agudo severo (SARS), ocurrido también en China entre los años 2002-2003. Por este motivo, 2019-nCoV se rebautizó como SARS-CoV-2 (Severe Acute Respiratory Syndrome Corona Virus-2) y a la fecha es responsable de la actual y grave pandemia que está ocasionando impactos sanitarios y socio-económicos a escala global. Las investigaciones con SARS-CoV establecieron que este virus ingresa a nuestras células utilizando como receptor a la enzima convertidora de angiotensina tipo 2 (ECA 2 o en inglés ACE-2: "angiotensin converting enzyme type 2"). Dado este antecedente también se confirmó que SARS-CoV-2 también utiliza esta misma enzima ya que no se habla de un mecanismo en si para ingresar a sus células blanco, especialmente a nivel de nuestro sistema respiratorio. ECA-2 es una proteasa integrante del sistema renina angiotensina "alterno o no canónico" con importantes acciones regulatorias sobre los sistemas cardiovascular, renal y pulmonar, entre otros. En este contexto, ha surgido preocupación tanto por clínicos como los propios pacientes respecto al estado de pacientes hipertensos con COVID-19 y su vulnerabilidad a infectarse con SARS-CoV-2 dado que algunos trabajos han planteado que ciertos polimorfismos en el gen ECA-2 asociados a hipertensión arterial podrían determinar una mayor expresión de ECA-2. Además, estudios preclínicos han sugerido que ciertos fármacos antihipertensivos (principalmente, inhibidores de ECA y antagonistas del receptor para angiotensina II subtipo 1) también podrían estimular una mayor expresión de ECA-2. Esta revisión tiene por objetivo presentar y discutir los antecedentes en el estado del arte respecto a esta reciente problemática. El análisis crítico de los presentes antecedentes permite concluir que no existe evidencia clínica sólida que permita afirmar que el uso de medicamentos antihipertensivos genere una mayor vulnerabilidad a la infección con SARS-CoV-2. Por lo tanto no se debe descontinuar su uso en pacientes hipertensos en riesgo de infección a SARS-CoV-2 o que padezcan COVID-19.
In December 2019, a new type of coronavirus emerged in the city of Wuhan, China. This novel virus has unleashed a pandemic that has inflicted a considerable impact on public health and the economy and has therefore become a severe concern worldwide. This new virus -named SARS-CoV-2has been rapidly investigated in order to create knowledge aimed at achieving its control. Comparative studies with SARS-CoV virus, responsible for the 2002-2003 pandemic, suggest that SARS-CoV-2 requires the same receptor to bind and infect cells: angiotensin converting enzyme 2 (ACE-2). This hypothesis has been thoroughly supported by a variety of in vitro research and is currently considered a potential therapeutic target. ACE-2 is part of the counter-regulatory renin-angiotensin system, exerting effects in pulmonary, renal and cardiovascular systems. In this context, concerns have arisen in regards to the vulnerability of hypertensive patients against COVID-19, given that there is evidence that may suggest that polymorphisms associated to hypertension may increase the expression of ACE-2. Moreover, preclinical studies have shown that antihypertensive drugs may increase the expression of this enzyme. In this review article, we present the current state of the art on this polemic topic. Our critical analysis suggest that there is no robust clinical evidence supporting the hypothesis that the use of antihypertensive drugs can increase vulnerability to infection with SARS-CoV-2. Therefore, we recommend that the use of these therapeutic agents should not be discontinued in hypertensive patients in risk to or suffering COVID-19.