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Abstract Introduction: Adverse or favourable rearing conditions early in life affect emotional response during adolescence. To study the effect of early rearing on emotional response, animal models such as maternal separation (MS) and social enrichment (SE) by community nesting have been useful. However, the comparison of the effect of MS and SE on anxiety-related behaviours in adolescent rats is unknown. Objective: This study aimed to assess the effects of MS and SE on the emotional response of adolescent rats exposed to the elevated plus-maze test (EPM). Method: Pregnant Wistar rats were randomly distributed into three groups according to the rearing condition. In the MS group, pups were separated daily from their dams for 180 minutes, from postnatal day (P) 2 to 14. In the SE group, two females that gave birth synchronously were housed in a cage with a litter of eight pups. Females from control standard housing (SH) were individually housed and kept with their offspring until weaning (P23). On P32, anxiety-related measures were evaluated using an EPM. Results: MS and SE increase anxiety-related behaviours and locomotion in rats exposed to the EPM. SE had sex-dependent effects on anxiety-related measures, increasing vertical activity in females and horizontal activity in males. MS but not SE increased body weight gain in female rats. Conclusion: Adverse or favourable rearing conditions early in life may result in an increased anxiety phenotype in the EPM during adolescence. It is likely that the favourable effect of SE depends on the number of dams per communal nest.

Resumen Introducción: Las condiciones de crianza adversas o favorables en etapas tempranas de la vida afectan la respuesta emocional durante la adolescencia. Para estudiar el efecto de la crianza temprana sobre la respuesta emocional, han sido útiles modelos animales como la separación materna (SM) y el enriquecimiento social (ES) mediante anidamiento comunitario. Sin embargo, se desconoce la comparación del efecto de la SM y el ES sobre las conductas relacionadas con la ansiedad en ratas adolescentes. Objetivo: Este estudio pretende evaluar los efectos de la SM y el ES sobre la respuesta emocional de ratas adolescentes expuestas al test del laberinto en cruz elevado (EPM). Método: Las ratas Wistar preñadas se distribuyeron aleatoriamente en tres grupos según la condición de crianza. En el grupo SM, las crías fueron separadas diariamente de sus madres durante 180 minutos, desde el día postnatal (P) 2 hasta el 14. En el grupo ES, dos hembras que parieron de forma sincronizada se alojaron en una caja con una camada de ocho crías. Las hembras del alojamiento estándar de control (SH) se alojaron individualmente y se mantuvieron con sus crías hasta el destete (P23). En P32, se evaluaron las medidas relacionadas con la ansiedad mediante un EPM. Resultados: La SM y el ES aumentan las conductas relacionadas con la ansiedad y la locomoción en las ratas expuestas al EPM. El ES tuvo efectos dependientes del sexo en las medidas relacionadas con ansiedad, aumentando la actividad vertical en las hembras y la actividad horizontal en los machos. La SM, pero no el ES, incrementó la ganancia de peso corporal en las ratas hembra. Conclusiones: Condiciones de crianza adversas o favorables en etapas tempranas de la vida pueden dar lugar a un fenotipo de ansiedad aumentado en el EPM durante la adolescencia. Es probable que el efecto favorable del ES dependa del número de hembras por nido comunitario.

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BACKGROUND: Potential childhood traumatic experiences increase risk for mental and physical health disorders and their precise assessment can help to promote health prevention and promotion strategies for countries with limited data and measurement strategies like Colombia. OBJECTIVE: The goal of the present study is to strengthen evidence for the validity of scores from an adapted version of the Early Trauma Inventory self report-short form (ETI-SF) using Item Response Theory and by assessing factorial invariance across gender and education level. PARTICIPANTS AND SETTING: The study assessed a total of 1909 Colombian participants (66.16 % women, 32.16 % men, 1.68 % other gender; age range 18-72 years old). METHODS: Participants answered the ETI-SF via a web-based sampling strategy. RESULTS: The total scores of the scale showed good reliability coefficients (α = 0.81 and ω = 0.60). A specific analysis for the subscales showed good reliability for the emotional, physical, and sexual trauma subscales (αs and ωs >0.64), while general trauma showed lower than accepted reliability values (α =0.56 and ω = 0.37). Most of the individual items of the scale showed good calibration. The factorial invariance analysis suggests the possibility of some gender and educational differences. CONCLUSIONS: The study confirms particularly high rates of potential childhood traumatic experiences in Colombia and complement data for specific trauma types. Overall, the ETI-SF is confirmed as useful for Colombia, which highlights this scale as a good tool to use for public health assessment. Future research can continue the integration of diverse methods for estimating the quality of the scale.

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The cognitive effects of nicotine are linked to persistent modifications in extended neural systems that regulate cognitive and emotional processes, and these changes occur during development. Additionally, acute stress has modulatory effects on cognition that involve broad neural systems and can be influenced by prior environmental challenges. The effects of nicotine and stress may be interconnected, leading to modifications in a network of shared brain substrates. Here, we explored the interaction between nicotine and stress by evaluating the effects of acute stress exposure in spatial memory retrieval for animals pretreated with nicotine during adolescence or adulthood. Adolescent (35 days old) and adult (70 days old) male Wistar rats were treated for 21 days with one daily subcutaneous injection of nicotine 0.14 mg/ml (free base). 30 days after the last injection, rats were trained in the Barnes maze and tested 24 h later, half the rats were tested under regular conditions, and half of them were exposed to 1 h of restraining stress before the retrieval test, and brain samples were collected and c-Fos immunopositive cells were stained. Prolonged nicotine withdrawal or acute stress improved spatial memory retrieval. Acute stress in nicotine pretreated adults impaired spatial memory retrieval. Nicotine exposure during early adulthood resulted in long-lasting brain adaptations that amplified emotional responses to acute stress after prolonged drug withdrawal.

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Resumen La investigación moderna, tanto en humanos como preclínica, que utiliza modelos animales indica que fumar durante la edad adolescente resulta en cambios cerebrales y psicológicos a corto y largo plazo en el fumador, así como en un aumento significativo en los riesgos de desarrollar adicción al tabaco durante la vida. Por lo tanto, en la presente revisión narrativa se describirán y profundizarán los hallazgos investigativos modernos de la psicobiología de la adolescencia y los efectos del tabaco en el desarrollo, con un énfasis particular en la comprensión de los efectos psicológicos y cerebrales del consumo de tabaco durante la adolescencia, tanto a corto como a largo plazo. Se considerarán de manera detallada los avances investigativos sobre la psicobiología de la adolescencia y sus riesgos en las adicciones desde los aspectos: conductual, cognitivo, reactividad al estrés y psicobiología. Sobre esta base, se revisará la investigación sobre la psicobiología de la adolescencia y la evidencia de vulnerabilidad a la adicción durante esta etapa. Al final, se abordarán los efectos del tabaco en el cerebro y conducta durante el desarrollo adolescente y vida posterior, ya que se ha encontrado evidencia relacionada con alteraciones cerebrales crónicas en los sistemas colinérgicos y regiones cerebrales asociadas con la dependencia de la nicotina. Se espera que la revisión y divulgación de esta información en el idioma español sea de valor para la comprensión de los problemas de vulnerabilidad y predisposiciones a la adicción al tabaco en el contexto de Latinoamérica.

Abstract Tobacco use and its harmful health-related problems have become one of the largest modern preventable public health issues. Current research strongly suggests that smoking during adolescence enhances addictive smoking behaviors during life, which can be related to adolescence as a critical ontogenetic period characterized by behaviors that can increase the probability of risk-related behaviors such as sensation and novelty seeking. Adolescent development is also a period of maturation of frontal and subcortical neural systems, brain changes that underlie higher impulsivity tendencies to promote adequate learning and adaptations necessary to succeed the novel challenges of the adult life, but those changes also enhance vulnerabilities to the addictive effects of drugs. Consistent with this, tobacco use affects brain development processes which underlie long-term psychobiological alterations and the enhanced risks for tobacco addiction during adult life. Thus, the present review describes current psychobiological approaches to understand general addiction processes and tobacco addiction, highlighting the behavioral and neural short-term effects of tobacco use during adolescence and its long-term effects during adulthood. Current research has advanced on four aspects for the understanding of both the psychobiology of adolescent development and the effects of drugs of abuse during this time. The first aspect is behavioral, as adolescence is related to important changes on motivational and emotional behaviors such as sensation seeking. Other important behavioral changes are social approach, a higher variety of opportunity for personal choices, and development of personal independence. Research on a second aspect has focused on cognition. A review of research is presented showing enhanced abilities during adolescence development for reading, abstract and logical thinking, and novel problem solving. Stress reactivity is the third aspect of reviewed psychobiological mechanisms. The stress biological system undergoes important changes during adolescence, including changes on stress-related hormones and neural architecture. An important issue is that exposure to early and/or chronic stressful circumstances during adolescence could be related to higher risk to the start and maintenance of addiction states, as suggested by research assessing the disruptive effects of stress on psychobiological homeostatic processes needed to maintain stable biological and emotional regulation. The fourth aspect is psychobiology. In this section research is reviewed related to the development of monoaminergic brain circuits underlying motivation, novelty-seeking, impulsivity, and addiction processes. Using as model the previous review integration, the effects of nicotine are discussed, the essential addictive component of tobacco, on the neurochemical systems underlying tobacco addiction. Following this, important research is introduced that describes psychobiological changes during adolescence and evidence of vulnerability to addiction during this life stage. Then, current research on both short-term and long-term effects of tobacco or nicotine administration during adolescence on the brain, behavior, and cognition is introduced. The current research advances and discussions on the psychobiology of addictions in general, and tobacco addiction in particular, have been possible to a large extent from the use of animal models and preclinical research, since animal models have become crucial to identify learning, motivational, emotional, and cognitive mechanisms that underlie addictive processes, and making possible to perform experimental procedures to discover the functioning and participation of biological components. One example of such components is the cholinergic system, which is activated by nicotine and is part of the neurochemical machinery on different brain areas important for both tobacco addiction and adolescence development such as the dorsal striatum, amygdala, ventral tegmental area, nucleus accumbens, prefrontal cortex, and hippocampus. The present review and research divulgation written in Spanish are expected to clarify modern research on addiction and encourage current scientific education on the vulnerabilities and predispositions for tobacco abuse in Latin-American countries.

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Resumen Introducción y objetivo: Los procesos de aprendizaje y motivación han sido centrales para la comprensión de los mecanismos que subyacen al tabaquismo. En particular, existe evidencia creciente sobre la importancia de valores motivacionales de incentivo para entender el inicio y mantenimiento del tabaquismo. El objetivo general de este experimento fue evaluar el papel de la nicotina aguda sobre el valor de incentivo de una recompensa natural, (comida) asociada con un estímulo ambiental, (palanca experimental). Método: Se utilizaron ratas Wistar. Se administró nicotina (0.4 mg/kg) de manera aguda en momentos específicos del entrenamiento, utilizando un procedimiento de diez sesiones de adquisición y cuatro sesiones extinción en una tarea pavloviana de automoldeamiento. El diseño experimental incluyó tres grupos, el grupo control de solución salina y grupos de nicotina durante la adquisición y la extinción. Resultados: Se encontró que la administración aguda de nicotina, de manera específica y en comparación con los otros dos grupos experimentales, resultó en un efecto de retardo durante la fase de extinción, y que una administración similar de nicotina no resultó en efectos observables durante el desempeño comportamental en adquisición. Conclusiones: Estos resultados apoyan el papel de la nicotina como fortalecedora del valor de incentivo de las claves ambientales durante la extinción para una tarea de automoldeamiento.

Abstract Introduction and goal: Learning and motivational processes have been central for a modern understanding of tobacco addiction. There is evidence that supports the importance of incentive motivational processes for the maintenance of tobacco addiction. The main goal of the present experiment was to evaluate the effects of acute nicotine on the incentive value of a natural reward, (food) paired with an environmental cue (pressing lever). Method: Wistar rats were used. Accute nicotine (0.4 mg/kg) was administered on key sessions, using a pavlovian autoshaping procedure involving ten acquisition and four extinction sessions. The experimental design included three groups, a saline administration control group and groups with specific nicotine administration during either acquisition or extinction. Results: We found that acute administration of nicotine, in contrast with saline only or previous nicotine administration during acquisition, had an enhancing effect on responding for the environmental cue during autoshaping extinction, but we did not find evidence that acute nicotine affected acquisition performance. Conclusion: Our results are consistent with a role of nicotine enhancing the incentive value of stimuli during extinction from a pavlovian autoshaping task.

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OBJECTIVE: Early traumatic experiences are related to profound and long-lasting negative effects on mental and physical health. Colombia has been involved in a war for the last six decades. Thus, the main objective was to adapt and validate the Early Trauma Inventory Self Report-Short Form in Colombia, as well as assess trauma prevalence in this country. METHOD: For this purpose, a total of 2,080 Colombians participated in this study (57.3% women and 42.4% men). Age ranged from 18 to 77 years old. They answered the 27-item version of the Early Trauma Inventory Self Report-Short Form and a sociodemographic evaluation tool. Web-based sampling was carried out between March 16 and March 30, 2020. RESULTS: Original four factor structure was successfully explored and confirmed here. Reliability indexes were good with alphas ranging from .69 to .93. Items properties were also adequate. Most of the assessed sample suffered trauma in their early stages (99.8%). Gender differences were analyzed observing significant differences. As expected, sexual abuse is more prevalent in women. CONCLUSIONS: To the best of our knowledge, the Colombian population has suffered the highest prevalence of early trauma experiences so far when compared to other countries. Emotional and social implications are discussed. (PsycInfo Database Record (c) 2021 APA, all rights reserved).

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Los países latinoamericanos enfrentan un conjunto complejo e idiosincrático de problemas sociales, entre los que se encuentra la búsqueda de soluciones relacionadas con la mejora de las condiciones de salud tanto física como mental de las personas. Dado que uno de los objetivos mismos de las ciencias y disciplinas psicológicas es precisamente la comprensión de los fenómenos, mecanismos y causas asociadas con la salud mental, los académicos y profesionales de la psicología latinoamericana se encuentran en una posición privilegiada para soportar los avances necesarios para la comprensión y solución de problemas psicosociales en Latinoamérica. Dado este potencial, una discusión clave para la psicología latinoamericana actual y futura se centra alrededor de las herramientas disciplinares a disposición de los psicólogos para la comprensión y solución de problemas psicosociales. En particular, el propósito del presente editorial es plantear una pregunta relacionada con las herramientas disciplinares de los psicólogos Latinoamérica nos contemporáneos y que podría ser fundamental para el desarrollo futuro de la psicología latinoamericana: ¿se utiliza suficientemente la ciencia básica para la solución de problemas psicosociales en Latinoamérica? Es clara la existencia de varias discusiones y modelos posibles para abordar el rango de interacciones entre ciencia básica y aplicada (Gutiérrez, 2011), pero también es claro que es imposible pensar en una disciplina psicológica, tanto históricamente como en la actualidad, que no esté informada de manera fundamental por la investigación en psicológica básica, neurociencias y ciencias de la medición (e. g., psicometría). Por lo tanto, una de las bases fundamentales del conocimiento necesario para solucionar problemas aplicados debe surgir de la interacción continua entre diversos conocimientos (básicos y aplicados) y métodos de investigación e intervención. Una implicación de esto se resume en que es mejor diseñar soluciones para problemas psicosociales utilizando conjuntamente el conocimiento de los principios y conocimientos de la ciencia básica, y no limitarse al conocimiento mismo de la práctica profesional.

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La productividad científica colombiana es limitada considerando indicadores como el número de artículos publicados en revistas de alto impacto y el índice h. La ausencia de una línea de base y de metodologías de comparación de productividad dificulta trazar las expectativas de publicación provenientes de las instancias nacionales. El objetivo del presente estudio fue evaluar de manera comparativa aspectos relacionados con el impacto y la calidad de la productividad académica de los investigadores en neurociencia comportamental utilizando modelos animales en Colombia. Esto se hizo por medio de la descripción de la población total de investigadores activos en Colombia y la definición de una muestra comparativa de investigadores internacionales. Luego se determinaron en Scopus las métricas asociadas con producción de artículos científicos para cada investigador. Finalmente, se identificó el cuartil de las revistas en las que publicaron los investigadores para un subconjunto de artículos en el Scimago Journal & Country Rank (SJR; Scimago Lab). Se encontró que aunque los investigadores en Colombia presentan una tasa importante de publicación (0.9 artículos por año), cuando se hace un análisis comparativo están rezagados en todos los aspectos de productividad con relación a investigadores internacionales. Se espera que la metodología propuesta pueda extenderse a la evaluación del impacto y calidad de la productividad en temáticas específicas de otras áreas de investigación.

High-impact academic research productivity in Colombia is limited. The absence of baselines and methodologies for meaningful comparisons with other countries complicates productivity projections from academic institutions. The goal of the present study was to evaluate the impact and quality of the academic productivity of researchers working on behavioral neuroscience using animal models in Colombia. The total population of active researchers in Colombia was described, and a comparative international sample of researchers was determined. Subsequently, for each researcher, we analyzed metrics associated to scientific productivity using Scopus and the journal position in Scimago Journal & Country Rank (SJR; Scimago Lab) of a sample of published articles. We report that, although there is an important rate of productivity for researchers in Colombia (0.9 articles per year), all aspects related to productivity were notably lower when compared to a sample of international researchers. Analyses of academic productivity in other scientific areas in Colombia may be enriched by the proposed methodology.

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Japanese quail (Coturnix japonica) were reinforced with food for traversing a runway for either 18 or 36 trials, administered at a rate of 1 trial per day. Then, all animals received 18 extinction trials. The latency to run from the start box to the goal box was the dependent variable. Extinction was significantly slower in animals that had received 50% partial reinforcement during acquisition, whether relative to a group matched in terms of acquisition trials (36 trials, twice the number of reinforced trials) or relative to a group matched in terms of reinforcements (18 trials). The latter group was also matched in terms of the temporal distribution of acquisition trials with the partial reinforcement group, being trained only on days when the partial group was scheduled to receive a reinforced trial. Thus, there was evidence of a spaced-trial partial reinforcement extinction effect. A comparison of groups receiving large versus small reward magnitudes yielded no evidence of the spaced-trial magnitude of reinforcement extinction effect, even though the large-reward group consumed approximately 3 times more food than the small-reward group. Moreover, a comparison of groups that received 36 versus 18 acquisition trials produced no evidence of the spaced-trial overtraining extinction effect, even though acquisition latencies were significantly lower for the group that received 36 acquisition trials. These results are discussed in relation to comparative research on learning phenomena involving incentive downshift manipulations.

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La investigación con modelos animales ha tenido un avance importante sobre el conocimiento de los mecanismos psicobiológicos que subyacen a las diferencias individuales que existen con referencia a la reactividad al estrés. La investigación animal también ha ayudado en la comprensión de los correlatos psicobiológicos de la reactividad al estrés en humanos, al sugerir mecanismos neuroquímicos particulares para la investigación y al producir modelos generales de funcionamiento psicológico aplicables en humanos. En este artículo se describen los elementos neuroquímicos básicos de la reactividad al estrés. Adicionalmente, se utiliza el modelo de epigénesis probabilística para incluir los elementos del desarrollo y genéticos que proveen el contexto necesario para la comprensión de las diferencias individuales en la reactividad al estrés. Finalmente, se describen algunos resultados y potenciales avances en la investigación de la psicobiología del trastorno de estrés postraumático en términos de los conceptos que han surgido desde la investigación animal.

Important research advances on the psychobiological mechanisms underlying individual differences for stress reactivity have resulted from research in animal models. Animal research has also shed light on the psychobiological correlates for stress reactivity in humans, providing candidate neurochemical mechanisms for human research and suggesting general theoretical models of psychological functioning across species. In this article, the basic neurochemical elements underlying stress reactivity are described. In addition, the probabilistic epigenesis theoretical model is used to introduce the necessary developmental and genetic context for the understanding of the psychobiology of individual differences in stress reactivity. Finally, some previous research and potential avenues of research in posttraumatic stress disorder are described using the concepts that emerged from animal research.

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El presente artículo tiene como objetivo describir y analizar las ventajas de la medición de la glándula cloacal de la codorniz japonesa macho como estrategia de evaluación indirecta de la producción de hormonas relacionadas con la conducta sexual de esta especie de ave. Primero, se hace una introducción al uso de aves como modelos experimentales en endocrinología conductual; luego, se presentan los argumentos a favor del uso de medidas indirectas de la producción hormonal. Se presenta investigación que muestra la relación de la medida del área y el volumen de la glándula cloacal, con otras medidas de producción de andrógenos y se presentan algunas investigaciones representativas que han hecho uso efectivo de esta medida.

In the present article we describe and analyze the advantages of measuringthe cloacal gland of male Japanese quail as a strategy to indirectly evaluate the production of hormones related to sexual behavior in this bird species.The use of animal models in general, and birds in particular, for the studyof the relationship between hormones and behavior is first introduced.Arguments for the advantage of using indirect measures of hormone productionare presented. Research that shows the correlation between area and volume of cloacal gland with other measures of androgen production is described, and some relevant research that has made use of indirect measures is presented.

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The convergence of different philosophical and scientific positions is the basis of the causal explanation of behavior analysis, and the complexity of that explanation is not always obvious. Given that evolutionary biology is one of the positions, in this article I analyze its influence on the notion of selection by consequences of Skinner; this notion was proposed subsequently as the only causal mode of behavior. An analysis of the historical antecedents and posterior discussions of the theme suggests that behavioral variation is an alternative causal mode of behavior, and its inclusion in behavior analysis is necessary. The purpose of the present paper is to support, from the analysis of analogies between evolution and behavior, the necessity of considering different causal modes in the understanding of behavior; particularly, I propose to amplify the explanations centered in remote causes by incorporating proximal causes of behavior. Finally, a biological interpretation of behavior is emphasized.

La explicación causal propuesta por el análisis conductual se originó por la convergencia de distintas posiciones filosóficas y científicas, por lo cual posee una complejidad no siempre advertida. Dado que la biología evolutiva es una de las perspectivas en juego, se revisa la influencia que tuvo sobre la noción skinneriana de selección por consecuencias; noción que posteriormente se propuso como modo causal único del comportamiento. Un análisis de los antecedentes históricos y discusiones posteriores al respecto sugiere que la variación se constituye como modo causal alternativo a la selección, haciéndose necesaria su inclusión. Por ello, el objetivo de este artículo es defender, partiendo del análisis de las analogías entre evolución y comportamiento, la necesidad de considerar distintos modos causales para comprender el comportamiento; particularmente, se propone ampliar las explicaciones centradas en causas remotas al incorporar las causas próximas del comportamiento. Finalmente, se hace énfasis en una interpretación biológica del comportamiento.