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Noradrenaline (NA) levels are altered during the first hours and several days after cortical injury. NA modulates motor functional recovery. The present study investigated whether iron-induced cortical injury modulated noradrenergic synthesis and dopamine beta-hydroxylase (DBH) activity in response to oxidative stress in the brain cortex, pons and cerebellum of the rat. Seventy-eight rats were divided into two groups: (a) the sham group, which received an intracortical injection of a vehicle solution; and (b) the injured group, which received an intracortical injection of ferrous chloride. Motor deficits were evaluated for 20 days post-injury. On the 3rd and 20th days, the rats were euthanized to measure oxidative stress indicators (reactive oxygen species (ROS), reduced glutathione (GSH) and oxidized glutathione (GSSG)) and catecholamines (NA, dopamine (DA)), plus DBH mRNA and protein levels. Our results showed that iron-induced brain cortex injury increased noradrenergic synthesis and DBH activity in the brain cortex, pons and cerebellum at 3 days post-injury, predominantly on the ipsilateral side to the injury, in response to oxidative stress. A compensatory increase in contralateral noradrenergic activity was observed, but without changes in the DBH mRNA and protein levels in the cerebellum and pons. In conclusion, iron-induced cortical injury increased the noradrenergic response in the brain cortex, pons and cerebellum, particularly on the ipsilateral side, accompanied by a compensatory response on the contralateral side. The oxidative stress was countered by antioxidant activity, which favored functional recovery following motor deficits.

Assuntos

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The negative effects of pain are a constant concern in the surgical management of animals, leading to the search for new drugs or more effective analgesic protocols to control this negative emotion. This study aimed to evaluate the nociceptive response of cannabidiol (CBD) alone and in combination with meloxicam using infrared pupillometry in female dogs undergoing elective ovariohysterectomy (OVH) under isoflurane anesthesia. A total of 60 female dogs of different breeds were included. These dogs were randomly assigned to four study groups according to the treatment: Control Group (G0: n = 15) receiving saline solution; group premedicated with meloxicam at a dose of 0.2 mg Kg-1 IV (GMelox: n = 15). Postoperatively this drug was used at 0.1 mg Kg-1 IV every 24 h; the CBD-treated Group (GCBD: n = 15) at a dose of 2 mg Kg-1 orally in the preoperative. Postoperatively was administrated every 12 h; and the Group premedicated with the combination of meloxicam and CBD (GMelox/CBD: n = 15) Meloxicam at a dose of 0.2 mg Kg-1 IV preoperatively, and 0.1 mg Kg-1 IV during the postoperative. CBD at a dose of 2 mg Kg-1 orally in the preoperative, and every 12 h in the postoperative. Treatments were administered for 48 postoperative hours. After OVH, the pupillary neurologic index, pupillary size, minimum diameter (MIN), percentage change, constriction latency (Lat), constriction velocity, and maximum constriction velocity were recorded as pupillometric variables in both eyes during events (E): Baseline (30 min before drug administration), E30 min, E1h, E2h, E3h, E4h, E8h, E12h, E24h, and E48h. The Short-Form of the Glasgow Composite Measure Pain Scale (GCMPS-SF) was used to assess pain during the same events. Overall, it was observed that the pupillometric variables Size, MIN., and Lat. were significantly higher in G0 compared to the other groups during E30 min, E1h, and E2h (p = 0.03), indicating greater pupil dilation in G0 animals. Additionally, no statistically significant differences were observed in GCMPS-SF between GMelox, GCBD, and GMelox/CBD during the postoperative period (p > 0.05). In contrast, the scores were statistically different compared to G0 (p = 0.00001), where all animals in this group received rescue analgesia at 2 h post-surgery. According to pupillometry and scores on the GCMPS-SF scale, it was observed that monotherapy with cannabidiol provides a similar analgesic effect to meloxicam alone or in combination with cannabidiol to manage acute pain in dogs. Similarly, these findings suggest that infrared pupillometry could be a tool for recognizing acute pain in dogs.

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Several types of enrichment can be used to improve animal welfare. This review summarizes the literature on the use of mechanical brushes, tactile udder stimulation, music, and visual stimuli as enrichment methods for dairy cows. Mechanical brushes and tactile stimulation of the udder have been shown to have a positive effect on milk yield and overall behavioral repertoire, enhancing natural behavior. Classical music reduces stress levels and has similarly been associated with increased milk yield. A slow or moderate tempo (70 to 100 bpm) at frequencies below 70 dB is recommended to have this positive effect. Evidence on the impacts of other types of enrichment, such as visual stimulation through mirrors, pictures, and color lights, or the use of olfactory stimuli, is equivocal and requires further study.

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The present review aims to analyze the anatomical and physiological characteristics of the mammary gland and udders of water buffalo by making an anatomofunctional comparison with dairy cattle. It will also discuss the knowledge generated around the physiological regulation of milk ejection in the water buffalo. It was found that buffalo's average udder depth and width is approximately 20 cm smaller than Bos cattle. One of the main differences with dairy cattle is a longer teat canal length (around 8.25-11.56 cm), which highly influences buffalo milking. In this sense, a narrower teat canal (2.71 ± 0.10 cm) and thicker sphincter muscle are associated with needing higher vacuum levels when using machine milking in buffalo. Moreover, the predominant alveolar fraction of water buffalo storing 90-95% of the entire milk production is another element that can be related to the lower milk yields in buffalo (when compared to Bos cattle) and the requirements for prolonged prestimulation in this species. Considering the anatomical characteristics of water buffalo's udder could help improve bubaline dairy systems.

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Cardiovascular function monitoring has been suggested as a key parameter to determine patient stability during the anesthetic process. However, the use of pulse co-oximetry has been suggested as a technology to complement the monitoring of this system as a direct way to assess hemoglobin (Hb) blood concentration. Therefore, this study aimed to correlate and determine the measurement bias between Hb blood levels with continuously determined blood hemoglobin concentration (SpHb) and arterial oxygen content values (SpOC), both obtained by noninvasive co-oximetry in dogs undergoing elective ovariohysterectomy (OVH). A total of 85 clinically healthy bitches of different breeds that were admitted for elective OVH surgery were evaluated. These animals underwent SpHb and SpOC capture after the in vivo setting for the duration of the surgical procedure. Likewise, five minutes before the end of the surgical procedure, a blood sample was obtained directly from the jugular vein to determine the blood concentration of Hb (HbLAB). The Bland-Altman analysis showed 95% limits of agreement from -4.22 to 4.99 g/dL with a BIAS (mean difference) of 0.384 ± 2.35 g/dL (r = 0.401). SpHb recordings were correlated with oxygen saturation (SpO2) (r = 0.995), SpOC (r = 0.992) and with perfusion index (PI) (r = 0.418). Therefore, SpHb presents a moderate positive correlation with direct blood concentration of Hb. This possibly shows that continuous measurement of SpHb by noninvasive co-oximetry is a reliable and advanced alternative for monitoring Hb concentration in dogs under anesthesia.

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Infrared Thermography (IRT) has become an assistance tool in medicine and is used to noninvasively evaluate heat elimination during and after inflammatory processes or during the recovery period. However, its application in veterinary patients undergoing physiotherapy is a field that requires deep research. This review aims to analyze the application of IRT in the monitoring of animal physiotherapy, using the thermal changes that are present in patients undergoing gait or lameness issues (e.g., inflammation, pain, increased local temperature) as a neurobiological basis. Rehabilitation techniques such as acupuncture, physical therapies, thermotherapy, photo-biomodulation, and electrostimulation have been reported to have an anti-inflammatory effect that decreases the amount of local heat production, which is heat that can be recorded with IRT. Therefore, IRT could be used as a complementary tool to evaluate the effectiveness of the therapy, and it is suggested that further studies evaluate the accuracy, sensibility, and sensitivity of IRT.

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When an organism detects decreases in their core body temperature, the hypothalamus, the main thermoregulatory center, triggers compensatory responses. These responses include vasomotor changes to prevent heat loss and physiological mechanisms (e.g., shivering and non-shivering thermogenesis) for heat production. Both types of changes require the participation of peripheral thermoreceptors, afferent signaling to the spinal cord and hypothalamus, and efferent pathways to motor and/or sympathetic neurons. The present review aims to analyze the scientific evidence of the hypothalamic control of hypothermia and the central and peripheral changes that are triggered in domestic animals.

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Like other animals, fish have unique personalities that can affect their cognition and responses to environmental stressors. These individual personality differences are often referred to as "behavioural syndromes" or "stress coping styles" and can include personality traits such as boldness, shyness, aggression, exploration, locomotor activity, and sociability. For example, bolder or proactive fish may be more likely to take risks and present lower hypothalamo-pituitary-adrenal/interrenal axis reactivity as compared to shy or reactive individuals. Likewise, learning and memory differ between fish personalities. Reactive or shy individuals tend to have faster learning and better association recall with aversive stimuli, while proactive or bold individuals tend to learn more quickly when presented with appetitive incentives. However, the influence of personality on cognitive processes other than cognitive achievement in fish has been scarcely explored. Cognitive bias tests have been employed to investigate the interplay between emotion and cognition in both humans and animals. Fish present cognitive bias processes (CBP) in which fish's interpretation of stimuli could be influenced by its current emotional state and open to environmental modulation. However, no study in fish has explored whether CBP, like in other species, can be interpreted as long-lasting traits and whether other individual characteristics may explain its variation. We hold the perspective that CBP could serve as a vulnerability factor for the onset, persistence, and recurrence of stress-related disorders. Therefore, studying fish's CBP as a state or trait and its interactions with individual variations may be valuable in future efforts to enhance our understanding of anxiety and stress neurobiology in animal models and humans.

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The brain cortex is the structure that is typically injured in traumatic brain injury (TBI) and is anatomically connected with other brain regions, including the striatum and hypothalamus, which are associated in part with motor function and the regulation of body temperature, respectively. We investigated whether a TBI extending to the striatum could affect peripheral and core temperatures as an indicator of autonomic thermoregulatory function. Moreover, it is unknown whether thermal modulation is accompanied by hypothalamic and cortical monoamine changes in rats with motor function recovery. The animals were allocated into three groups: the sham group (sham), a TBI group with a cortical contusion alone (TBI alone), and a TBI group with an injury extending to the dorsal striatum (TBI + striatal injury). Body temperature and motor deficits were evaluated for 20 days post-injury. On the 3rd and 20th days, rats were euthanized to measure the serotonin (5-HT), noradrenaline (NA), and dopamine (DA) levels using high-performance liquid chromatography (HPLC). We observed that TBI with an injury extending to the dorsal striatum increased core and peripheral temperatures. These changes were accompanied by a sustained motor deficit lasting for 14 days. Furthermore, there were notable increases in NA and 5-HT levels in the brain cortex and hypothalamus both 3 and 20 days after injury. In contrast, rats with TBI alone showed no changes in peripheral temperatures and achieved motor function recovery by the 7th day post-injury. In conclusion, our results suggest that TBI with an injury extending to the dorsal striatum elevates both core and peripheral temperatures, causing a delay in functional recovery and increasing hypothalamic monoamine levels. The aftereffects can be attributed to the injury site and changes to the autonomic thermoregulatory functions.

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Perinatal mortality occurs in all species. In dogs, mortality rates have been reported to range from 5 to 35%. Electronic fetal and uterine monitoring has recently been used in domestic animals to monitor the mother and newborn before and during parturition. In this way, the fetal heart rate and uterine dynamics can be monitored. This study evaluated the uterine dynamics of bitches with different weights and parity. Ninety-six bitches and their 476 puppies were divided into four experimental groups containing 24 individuals each (12 primiparous bitches and 12 multiparous bitches), according to body weight: G1 (4-8 kg), G2 (8.1-16 kg), G3 (16.1 to 32 kg), and G4 (32.1 to 39.6 kg). The fetal heart rate decelerations (dip 2 patterns), uterine dynamics, and bitches' blood profiles were evaluated, including levels of glucose, lactate, pCO2, pO2, pH, HCO3-, and Ca++. The dam weight can affect the vitality of newborns and the uterine dynamics, with differences in the frequency, intensity, and duration of myometrial contractions. The expulsion interval between puppies was longest in primiparous bitches with low weight and shortest in multiparous bitches with high weight. The expulsion interval and the number of stillborn females were higher in primiparous bitches with high weight. Newborn male puppies were significantly heavier than newborn females.

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Refinement of experimental procedures in animal research has the objective of preventing and minimizing pain/distress in animals, including the euthanasia period. This study aimed to evaluate pain associated with six methods of euthanasia in Wistar rats (injectable, inhalational, and physical), by applying the Rat Grimace Scale (RGS), comparing the scores, and determining the method with the highest score that might indicate pain for laboratory rodents. Sixty adult male and female Wistar rats were used and assigned to six treatments: pentobarbital, CO2, decapitation, isoflurane, ketamine + xylazine, and ketamine + CO2. Video recording to assess the RGS scores was performed in four events: basal: 24 h before the procedure; Ti1: three minutes before the procedure; Ti2: during the application of the euthanasia method; and Ti3: immediately after the application until LORR. The main findings of this study showed that, during Ti2, decapitation and ketamine + xylazine had the highest scores (0.6 ± 0.26 and 0.6 ± 0.16, respectively) (p < 0.0001), while at Ti3, CO2 (0.9 ± 0.18) and isoflurane (1.2 ± 0.20) recorded the highest scores (p < 0.0001). According to the present results, decapitation and ketamine + xylazine elicited short-term acute pain, possibly due to tissue damage caused by both methods (injection and guillotine). In contrast, isoflurane's RGS scores recorded during Ti3 might be associated with nociception/pain due to the pungency of the drug or to the pharmacological muscle relaxant effect of isoflurane. Further research is needed to establish a comprehensive study of pain during euthanasia, where RGS could be used minding the limitations that anesthetics might have on facial expression.

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Transport is a stressor that can cause physiological and metabolic imbalances in livestock, resulting in stress-induced hyperthermia. In water buffaloes, studies regarding the thermal state of animals during mobilization are scarce. Therefore, this study aimed to compare the thermal response of 1516 water buffaloes using infrared thermography (IRT) during 15 short trips (783 animals, 60,291 records, average duration = 50.33 min ± 5.48 min) and 14 long trips (733 animals, 56,441 records, average duration = 13.31 h ± 47.32 min). The surface temperature was assessed in 11 regions (periocular, lacrimal caruncle, nasal, lower eyelid, auricular, frontal-parietal, pelvic limb, torso, abdominal, lumbar, and thoracic) during seven phases from pasture to post-transport. It was found that the surface temperature of the periocular, lacrimal caruncle, nasal, auricular, frontal-parietal, pelvic limb, torso, abdominal, lumbar, and thoracic regions was significantly higher during SJs (+3 °C) when compared to LJs (p < 0.0001). In particular, the frontal-parietal region had a significant increase of 10 °C during the post-transport phase (p < 0.0001) in both groups, recording the highest temperatures during this phase. Likewise, a strong positive significant correlation between the different regions was found (r = 0.90, p < 0.0001). It is worth mentioning that the herding, loading, pre-, and post-transport phases were the ones where the greatest thermal response was recorded, possibly due to the influence of human interaction. Finally, a strong positive correlation (r above 0.9, p > 0.001) between the periocular, lacrimal caruncle, pinna, and pelvic limb was found. According to the results, SJ could be considered a stressful event that hinders thermal generation, contrarily to LJ.

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Caffeine is widely used to improve neonatal health in animals with low vitality. Due to its pharmacokinetics and pharmacodynamics, caffeine stimulates the cardiorespiratory system by antagonism of adenosine receptors and alteration in Ca+2 ion channel activity. Moreover, the availability of intracellular Ca+2 also has positive inotropic effects by increasing heart contractibility and by having a possible positive effect on neonate vitality. Nonetheless, since neonatal enzymatic and tissular systems are immature at birth, there is a controversy about whether caffeine is an effective therapy for newborns. This review aims to analyze the basic concepts of caffeine in neonatal animal models (rat and mouse pups, goat kids, lambs, and piglets), and it will discuss the neuroprotective effect and its physiological actions in reducing apnea in newborns.

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Refinement is one of the principles aiming to promote welfare in research animals. The techniques used during an experimental protocol, including euthanasia selection, must prevent and minimize suffering. Although the current euthanasia methods applied to laboratory rodents are accepted, the controversial findings regarding the potential stress/distress they can cause is a field of research. The objective was to assess the thermal response of Wistar rats during various euthanasia methods using infrared thermography (IRT) to determine the method that prevents or diminishes the stress response and prolonged suffering. Pentobarbital (G1), CO2 (G2), decapitation (G3), isoflurane (G4), ketamine + xylazine (G5), and ketamine + CO2 (G6) were evaluated at five evaluation times with IRT to identify changes in the surface temperature of four anatomical regions: ocular (T°ocu), auricular (T°ear), interscapular (T°dor), and caudal (T°tai). Significant differences (p < 0.05) were found in G2 and G4, registering temperature increases from the administration of the drug to the cessation of respiratory rate and heart rate. Particularly, isoflurane showed a marked thermal response in T°ocu, T°ear, T°dor, and T°tai, suggesting that, in general, inhalant euthanasia methods induce stress in rats and that isoflurane might potentially cause distress, an effect that must be considered when deciding humane euthanasia methods in laboratory rodents.

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In birds, parental care and attachment period differ widely depending on the species (altricial or precocial), developmental strategies, and life history traits. In most bird species, parental care can be provided by both female and male individuals and includes specific stages such as nesting, laying, and hatching. During said periods, a series of neuroendocrine responses are triggered to motivate parental care and attachment. These behaviors are vital for offspring survival, development, social bonding, intergenerational learning, reproductive success, and ultimately, the overall fitness and evolution of bird populations in a variety of environments. Thus, this review aims to describe and analyze the behavioral and endocrine systems of parental care and newborn attachment in birds during each stage of the post-hatching period.

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Hypothermia is one of the principal causes of perinatal mortality in water buffaloes and can range from 3% to 17.9%. In ruminants, factors affecting hypothermia in newborns may be of intrinsic (e.g., level of neurodevelopment, birth weight, vitality score, amount of brown fat, skin features) or extrinsic origin (e.g., maternal care, environmental conditions, colostrum consumption). When newborn buffaloes are exposed to cold stress, thermoregulatory mechanisms such as peripheral vasoconstriction and shivering and non-shivering thermogenesis are activated to prevent hypothermia. Due to the properties of infrared thermography (IRT), as a technique that detects vasomotor changes triggered by a reduction in body temperature, evaluating the central and peripheral regions in newborn buffaloes is possible. This review aims to analyze behavioral, physiological, and morphological strategies and colostrum consumption as thermal compensation mechanisms in newborn water buffalo to cope with environmental changes affecting thermoneutrality. In addition, the importance of monitoring by IRT to identify hypothermia states will be highlighted. Going deeper into these topics related to the water buffalo is essential because, in recent years, this species has become more popular and is being bred in more geographic areas.

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Neonatal mortality in dogs reaches up to 40%. Due to the high rates, promptly detecting the causes and preventing newborns from dying are extremely important. Vitality evaluation, blood parameters, and the degree of meconium staining on the skin are valuable resources in canine perinatology. In this study, 435 puppies from 85 bitches close to parturition were recruited and divided into four quartiles according to the puppy's birth weight: Q1 (127-200 g) n = 110 puppies, Q2 (201-269 g) n = 108 puppies, Q3 (270-388 g) n = 108 puppies, and Q4 (389-464 g) n = 109 puppies. This experimental article aimed to report the effect of birth weight on the blood profile variables, the vitality of newborn puppies, and the meconium staining degree, integrating these three aspects. It was concluded that the weight of newborns was correlated with the degree of meconium staining, presenting more cases of severe meconium staining in the puppies of the highest birth weight group. The weight of the newborns was correlated with a higher number of stillbirths and alterations in the blood variables, showing the most severe cases of metabolic acidosis, hypoxia, and hypoglycemia in the puppies of the Q4 quartile. On the contrary, no statistically significant correlations were found between the weight of newborns and vitality. Nevertheless, the analysis of the results showed that the most vigorous puppies were found at Q1; however, at minute 60 after birth (AB), all the puppies in the four quartiles standardized their vitality scores.

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Evaluating the welfare of buffaloes during transport is key to obtaining and commercializing high-quality meat products; however, effective assessments require recognizing several stressors that activate physiological mechanisms that can have repercussions on the health and productive performance of species. The aim of this study was to evaluate the surface temperatures of different body and head regions in this species during events prior, and posterior, to transport for short periods; that is, from paddock to loading. The second goal was to determine the level of correlation between thermal windows. This study used infrared thermography (IRT) to evaluate the surface temperature of 624 water buffaloes (Buffalypso breed) during 12 short trips (average duration = 2 h ± 20 min) by focusing on 11 regions of the body (Regio corporis), in the head regions (Regiones capitis) the face regions (Regiones faciei), Orbital region (Regio orbitalis) with special attention to structures such as the lacrimal caruncle, periocular area and lower eyelid (Regio palpebralis inferior); nasal region (Regio nasalis) with special attention to nostril thermal window; and regions of the skull (Regiones cranii) such as auricular region (Regio auricularis) with special attention to auditory canal and frontal-parietal region (Regio frontalis-parietalis) and trunk region (Truncus regionis) such as thoracic and abdominal regions, regions of the vertebral column (Columna vertebralis) with the thoracic vertebral region (Regio vertebralis thoracis) and lumbar region (Regio lumbalis); and regions of the pelvis limb (Regiones membri pelvini). Recordings were made during seven phases: paddock (P1), herding (P2), corral (P3), chute handling (P4), shipping (P5), pre- (P6), and post-transport (P7). A total of 48,048 readings were obtained from 11 thermal windows. The results showed that the surface temperatures of the windows increased by as much as 5°C during P2, P3, P5, P6, and P7 compared to P1 and P4 (p < 0.0001). Differences of at least 1°C were also observed between thermal windows in the craniofacial, lateral corporal, and peripheral zones (p < 0.0001). Finally, a strong positive correlation (r = 0.9, p < 0.0001) was found between the thermal windows. These findings lead to the conclusion that the surface temperature of the craniofacial and corporal regions of buffaloes transported for short periods varied in relation to the phase of mobilization (from paddock to post-transport), likely as a response to stressful factors, since herding and loading increased the thermal values in each window. The second conclusion is that there are strong positive correlations between central and peripheral thermal windows.

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High temperatures for extended periods, which do not allow animals to recover from heat stress, affect in particular those BLV-infected animals that carry a high proviral load. For this study, animals were discriminated between BLV (+) and BLV (-), and those belonging to the first group, were classified based on their proviral load. The expression of the inflammatory cytokine TNF-α and its receptors, which play an important role in disease progression, were quantified by qPCR in two different seasons. During the summer, average temperature was 19.8 °C, maximums higher than 30 °C were frequent. Instead, during the autumn, the average temperature was 12.63 °C, and temperatures never exceeded 27 °C. During this season, almost no periods of temperatures exceeded the comfort limit. Our results revealed that the expression levels of TNF-α and its receptors were downregulated in animals with high proviral load. This fact could affect their antiviral response and predispose to viral dissemination; over time, animals with a poorer immune system are prone to acquiring opportunistic diseases. Conversely, animals with LPL maintained their expression profile, with behavior comparable to non-infected animals. These findings should be considered by producers and researchers, given the problems that global warming is causing lately to the planet.

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Animal welfare is a societally relevant issue that is globally attracting increased attention. This is in addition to the importance placed on welfare for the animals themselves. However, the content and application of laws protecting animals' welfare vary across countries. In Latin America, there are a range of common practices or activities involving certain animal species, many of which are legal, that can impair an animal's quality of life. These include the performance of aesthetic surgical procedures; bull-, cock-, and dog fighting; and the existence of circuses that exhibit animals. The extent and impact of these practices being dependent on the socioeconomic, cultural, territorial, and regulatory landscape of each country. Particularly, Ibero-American regions face welfare challenges that might be influenced by traditions and relevant legal gaps. The objective of this article is to review controversial practices carried out in companion and entertainment animals in Latin America, with a focus on legal aspects, as well as the current efforts being made to address and incorporate global welfare standards into domestic and wild animal practice and regulation.