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BACKGROUND AND AIM: Plant disjunctions have fascinated biogeographers and ecologists for a long time. We use tribe Bocageeae (Annonaceae), a predominantly Neotropical plant group distributed across several present-day Neotropical biomes and with an African-American disjunction, to investigate long-distance dispersal mediated by frugivorous animals at both intercontinental and intracontinental scales. METHODS: We reconstructed a species-level phylogeny of tribe Bocageeae with a dataset composed of 116 nuclear markers. We sampled 70% of Bocageeae species, covering its geographic range and representing all eight genera. We estimated divergence times using BEAST, inferred ancestral range distributions and reconstructed ancestral states for fruit traits related to long-distance dispersal in a Bayesian framework. KEY RESULTS: The ancestral Bocageeae date to the Early Eocene and were inferred to occur in Africa and proto-Amazonia. Its ancestral fruits were large and dehiscent. The first lineage split gave rise to an exclusively Neotropical clade during the Middle Eocene, in proto-Amazonia. Range exchange between the Amazon and the Atlantic Forest occurred at least once during the Miocene, and from Amazonia to Central America and Mexico, during the Early Miocene. Transitions in different sets of fruit morphologies were inferred to be related to dispersal events across South American regions/biomes. CONCLUSIONS: In Bocageeae mammals may have been responsible for long-distance dispersal through the Boreotropics. In the Neotropics, proto-Amazonia is proposed to be the source for dispersal to other tropical American biomes. Long-distance dispersal may have happened via a wide range of dispersal guilds, depending on frugivore radiations, diversity, and abundance at particular time periods and places. Hence, inter- and intracontinental dispersal may not rely on a single dispersal syndrome or guild, but more on the availability of frugivorous lineages for seed dispersal.
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Emerging resistance among Streptococcus pneumoniae to penicillin, erythromycin, clindamycin, tetracyclines, and trimethoprim-sulfamethoxazole continues to compromise orally administered therapy for community-acquired respiratory tract infections. Concern also exists that multidrug-resistant (MDR) S. pneumoniae and Haemophilus influenzae strains could develop fluoroquinolone resistance (FQR). S. pneumoniae (2379 strains), H. influenzae (2456), and Moraxella catarrhalis (901) studied as part of the SENTRY Antimicrobial Surveillance Program in 2003 were tested by reference MIC methods against 16 antimicrobials. In addition, 592 strains of S. pneumoniae from 1999 to 2003 were assessed for trends in MDR occurrences. H. influenzae beta-lactamase production varied from 11.6% in Latin America to 27.3% in North America, whereas beta-lactamase rates for M. catarrhalis remained stable at 94.7-95.6%. Penicillin resistance (MIC, > or =2 microg/mL) in S. pneumoniae was 14.7%, 12.7%, and 15.9% for Europe, Latin America, and North America, respectively. MDR S. pneumoniae increased from 5.7% (1999) to 6.3% (2003) in North America, but no FQR increase to new agents (gatifloxacin) was detected in the 2001-2003 MDR S. pneumoniae isolates. Five epidemic clusters of FQR S. pneumoniae (levofloxacin MIC, >32 microg/mL) strains have been reported by our group previously in Italian medical centers in 2002-2004. Unlike the strains described here, those strains were susceptible to beta-lactams, trimethoprim-sulfamethoxazole, chloramphenicol, and rifampin, and resistant to macrolide-lincosamide-streptogramin B agents and tetracycline (not meeting MDR criteria). Excluding these clones from Italy, overall FQR rates did not significantly vary from the prior years' experience across the regions (North America > Europe > Latin America). In conclusion, MDR and FQR S. pneumoniae continue to occur across all geographic regions monitored with some detectable clonality. The monitoring of emerging resistance as part of surveillance programs is useful in differentiating sporadic from clonal resistances, an important distinction when assessing prospective public health interventions or empiric therapy recommendations.