Assuntos
Masculino , Feminino , Humanos , Aleitamento Materno , Bioquímica , Ciências da Nutrição , Lactação/fisiologiaAssuntos
Masculino , Feminino , Humanos , Aleitamento Materno , Nutrição do Lactente , Ciências da Nutrição , Mulheres , Mulheres TrabalhadorasRESUMO
PIP: In view of the significant and articulate minority view among pediatricians that breast feeding is not "worth the bother" in developed countries, this review of the literature delves into the evidence from both developed and developing countries for the advantages of breastfeeding, both in infants and for long-term health. Infants in developed settings experience twice the hospitalization rate and more severe illness from lower respiratory tract infection, primarily respiratory syncytial virus. In developing countries the mortality risk is 4-fold. for otitis media, the relative risks were 3.3-4.3 for Finnish infants. Bacterial meningitis and/or bacteremia had a 4-fold risk for hospitalization in a Connecticut study, and a 3-fold relative risk in 2 developing country studies. Human milk was the best preventative for bacteremia and necrotizing enterocolitis in prematures in British neonatal units. A 20-fold reduction in neonatal deaths occurred in Philippine study of breastfeeding, especially in low birth weight babies. Diarrhea causes the most infant mortality in developing nations, where bottle-feeding raises rates 14-fold. In the U.S. estimated relative risks is 3.7 for diarrheal mortality. Sudden infant death is about 1/5 less common in U.S. breast fed babies than in bottle fed. There is evidence for better long-term health after breast feeding in disorders such as celiac disease, Crohn disease, ulcerative colitis, insulin-dependent diabetes mellitus, thyroid disease, malignant lymphoma, chronic liver disease, atopic dermatitis, and food allergies. The design of good studies of protection conferred by breast feeding, and the possible modes of action of breast milk are discussed.^ieng
Assuntos
Aleitamento Materno , Saúde Global , Nível de Saúde , Humanos , Lactente , Mortalidade Infantil , Recém-Nascido , Meningite/epidemiologia , Otite Média/epidemiologia , Infecções Respiratórias/epidemiologia , Fatores de Risco , Sepse/epidemiologiaAssuntos
Humanos , Recém-Nascido , Lactente , Pré-Escolar , Criança , Nutrição da Criança , Diarreia Infantil , Organização Mundial da SaúdeAssuntos
Humanos , Recém-Nascido , Lactente , Pré-Escolar , Criança , Adulto , Feminino , Infecções por HIV/transmissão , Leite HumanoRESUMO
PIP: Modern concepts about the development of breastfeeding programs are presented focusing on the need for community analysis, the importance of changing attitudes and stimulating motivation in the general public, and both small-scale and national level programs. Some form of community analysis is essential to develop a breastfeeding program. Information needs to be gathered on the prevalence of breastfeeding and the main social factors influencing the lactation reflexes, maternal knowledge about practical management, and the health of mothers. Experience suggests that this can most usefully be obtained by covering 4 topics: general information and attitudes, health services, women in the work force, and the influence of the infant food industry. From all 4 sources, information needs to be gathered on anxiety inducing factors and the limitation of opportunities for sucking, on the knowledge of the practical management of breastfeeding (modern versus traditional methods) by mothers, and on maternal health and nutrition. Breastfeeding programs need to change attitudes and to simulate motivation in the general public and particularly among mothers and fathers. In addition, programs need to convince and motivate other groups whose actions can support breastfeeding or make its accomplishment easier or more difficult. These groups include policymakers and legislators, health workers of various types, research scientists, and industrialists and the infant food industry. For the health professional, there are several procedures which need to be modified, including "rooming-in." Breastfeeding programs have been undertaken successfully on a relatively small scale, often in hospitals, by modifying existing maternity unit practices. The most significant "package" of activities for the hospital is "rooming-in." Positive results are available from hospitals in several European and various less technically developed countries. Various countries have shown an increase in breastfeeding in the past 25 years. Mostly this has not been part of a national program but has been led by mothers' support groups. Additionally, over the past 10-15 years, national programs of different degrees of complexity and coverage have been initiated in several countries. Breastfeeding programs work when based on a "tripod" approach, i.e., support maternal reflexes, provide practical information on management, and preserve the health and nutrition of pregnant and lactating mothers.^ieng
Assuntos
Aleitamento Materno , Educação em Saúde , Brasil , Feminino , Humanos , GravidezAssuntos
Gorilla gorilla , Relações Mãe-Filho , Animais , Feminino , Gorilla gorilla/fisiologia , Humanos , Lactente , GravidezRESUMO
PIP: Switching from breast-feeding to bottle-feeding can have negative effects anywhere. In developing areas especially, it can cause marasmus and infectious dyarrhea, resulting in increased infant morbidity and mortality. Breast-feeding practices decreased because of urbanization and changed women's status, but especially because of the very often unethical promotion techniques of infant formulas manufacturers. Some promotional campaigns in developing countries have been so heavy and so successful as to totally change preexisting breast-feeding practices. The major companies producing infant formulas have been repeatedly submitted to criticism, and have recently changed their marketing policies. It is imperative, however, that governments set up legislation to control the still inaccurate and inadequate promotion of infant formulas in many countries. On the other hand, special courses in infant nutrition should be set up at medical schools, to produce sorely needed specialists in pediatric nutrition.^ieng
Assuntos
Publicidade , Países em Desenvolvimento , Mortalidade Infantil , Lactação , Fenômenos Fisiológicos da Nutrição , Urbanização , Direitos da Mulher , Biologia , Demografia , Economia , Geografia , Saúde , Marketing de Serviços de Saúde , Mortalidade , Fisiologia , População , Dinâmica Populacional , Gravidez , Fatores Socioeconômicos , População Urbana , MulheresAssuntos
Aleitamento Materno , Atenção à Saúde , Europa (Continente) , Feminino , Humanos , Lactente , Recém-Nascido , Estados Unidos , Índias OcidentaisAssuntos
Humanos , Recém-Nascido , Lactente , Feminino , Aleitamento Materno , Atenção à Saúde , Europa (Continente) , Estados Unidos , Índias OcidentaisAssuntos
Currículo , Educação em Enfermagem , Fenômenos Fisiológicos da Nutrição , África , Ásia , Educação em Enfermagem/história , Bacharelado em Enfermagem , Educação Continuada em Enfermagem , Programas de Graduação em Enfermagem , Europa (Continente) , História do Século XV , História do Século XVI , História do Século XVII , História do Século XVIII , História do Século XIX , História do Século XX , História Antiga , História Medieval , Humanos , Tocologia/educação , América do Norte , América do SulRESUMO
PIP: The psychophysiology and practice of breast-feeding is discussed. Successful lactation involves stimulation of the nipple and areola by the nursing baby, which causes the secretion of prolactin. This is followed by the milk-ejection reflex. This reflex is psychosomatic in nature and leads to contraction of the myoepithelial cells, which results in expulsion of the milk. These reflexes can be inhibited by anxiety, doubt, and other forms of emotional tension. Prolactin secretion is proportional to the stimulation of the nipple and areola. Western practices such as oversedation of the newborn, the use of prelacteal bottle feeds, and the separation of mother and the newborn seriously limit the amount of suckling time. In rural India it is customary for another woman to remain with the mother during childbirth and the neonatal period while the mother is secluded for several weeks. The routines practiced in Western societies do not enhance the prolactin and milk-ejection reflexes. No-cost modifications of procedures during pregnancy, childbirth, and the newborn period would substantially improve upon the success of breast-feeding.^ieng