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(analítico) Durante los últimos años diversas investigaciones analizaron la asociación entre contexto y desarrollo infantil. Un problema central es si el ambiente influye en el desarrollo cognitivo. El contexto está compuesto por diferentes niveles que interactúan entre sí e influyen en las personas: el microsistema, mesosistema, exosistema y el macrosistema. El objetivo de esta revisión sistemática es indagar acerca de los factores que pertenecen al contexto y modularían el desarrollo infantil. A través de una búsqueda de artículos empíricos en revistas científicas indexadas, se seleccionaron 22 artículos, los cuales fueron analizados mediante la comparación de las variables: población, país, instrumento de evaluación, constructo evaluado, frecuencia de evaluación y resultados. Los resultados muestran que los factores ambientales pertenecientes a cada nivel analizado tienen la capacidad de modular el desarrollo infantil.

(analytical) Over the past few years, research has focused on the association between context and child development. One of the central problems addressed is whether a child's environment influences cognitive development. The context consists of different levels that interact with each other and influence people: the microsystem, mesosystem, exosystem and macrosystem. The goal of this systematic review is to investigate factors that form part of the context and affect child development. Twenty-two articles were selected through a search of empirical articles in indexed scientific journals. These were analyzed by comparing the variables used: population, country, evaluation instrument, evaluated construct, evaluation frequency and results. The results show that environmental factors belonging to each context level have the capacity to modulate child development.

(analítico) Nos últimos anos, a investigação analisou a parceria entre o contexto e o desenvolvimento infantil. Um dos problemas centrais é se o ambiente influencia no desenvolvimento cognitivo. O contexto é composto por diferentes níveis que interagem entre si e influenciam as pessoas: o microssistema, o mesosistema, o exosistema e o macrosistema. O objetivo desta revisão sistemática é indagar sobre os fatores que pertencem ao contexto e modular o desenvolvimento infantil. Através de uma pesquisa de artigos empíricos em revistas científicas indexadas, foram selecionados 22 artigos, os quais foram analisados mediante a comparação das variáveis: população, país, instrumento de avaliação, constructo avaliado, frequência de avaliação e resultados. Os resultados mostram que os fatores ambientais pertencentes a cada nível analisado têm a capacidade de modular o desenvolvimento infantil.

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Stress alters memory. Understanding how and when acute stress improves or impairs memory is a challenge. Stressors can affect memory depending on a combination of factors. Typically, mild stressors and stress hormones might promote consolidation of memory processing and impair memory retrieval. However, studies have shown that during reconsolidation, stressors may either enhance or impair recalled memory. We propose that a function of reconsolidation is to induce changes in the behavioral expression of memory. Here, we adapted the Rey Auditory Verbal Learning Test (RAVLT) to evaluate the effect of cold pressor stress (CPS) during the reconsolidation of this declarative memory. A decay in memory performance attributable to forgetting was found at the time of memory reactivation 5 d after training (day 6). Contrary to our initial predictions, the administration of CPS after memory reactivation impaired long-term memory expression (day 7), an effect dependent on the presence of a mismatch during Reactivation Session. No differences in recognition tests were found. To assess putative sources of the negative memory modulation effects induced during reconsolidation, current emotional state was evaluated immediately after Testing Session (day 7). An increase in arousal was revealed only when CPS was administered concurrently with memory reactivation-labilization. The possibility of integration during reconsolidation of independent associations of these emotive components in the trace is a critical factor in modulating neutral memories during reconsolidation by stressors.

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The Affective Norms for English Words (ANEW) are a set of normative emotional ratings for verbal stimuli that have been adapted to many different languages. This article presents the 1034 ANEW words adapted into Rioplatense Spanish, a regional variation of Spanish used in Latin America. A total of 483 volunteers rated three affective (valence, arousal, dominance) and three semantic variables (familiarity, imageability, concreteness). Several objective variables, such as frequency, number of letters, syllable length, and grammatical class were also included. The results showed the typical U-shaped distribution along valence and arousal, as well as strong correlations with other ANEW adaptations. Furthermore, our sample was compared with the European Spanish sample and the original US sample and differences between languages and regional variations were found, stressing the need for culturally-specific resources for experimental research.

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Novelty seems to reduce the persistence of aversive memories and to modulate frustration responses, yet much less is known on how this treatment affects memories lacking hedonic or emotional content. The present study analyzed how a 5-min exposure to a novel open field modulated the expression of a spatial recognition memory. Experiment 1 indicated that male Wistar rats trained in a T-maze in which one goal arm is blocked exhibit, when tested 2 h later, preference for the novel arm. This recognition memory was impaired by the muscarinic cholinergic antagonist scopolamine. Postraining, but not pretraining, novelty exposure rescued the cognitive impairment induced by scopolamine (Experiment 2 and 3). Pretraining open field exposure alleviated the lack of memory expression, induced by imposing a 6 h delay between training and testing (Experiment 4). The study shows that a very brief exposure to novelty can improve expression of a spatial, recognition memory, a modulation that - in the case of the pretraining novelty exposure -- emerges even in spite of cholinergic blockade. The present results are consistent with research suggesting that novelty exposure can be an effective, non-pharmacological, treatment to modulate memory expression.

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Resumen La música provoca respuestas emocionales que se ven reflejadas en los cambios fisiológicos y cognitivos de los oyentes. Es una temática de estudio en común entre distintas disciplinas como la psicología de la música, la musicoterapia, la antropología de la música y la la neuropsicología, entre otras. Entender de qué manera la música puede incidir en el estado de ánimo de las personas permite contribuir al conocimiento sobre el efecto comportamental y a la creación de nuevas técnicas orientadas para regular las emociones mediante la música. Teniendo en cuenta estos antecedentes, se realizó un estudio con el propósito de evaluar el efecto de la percepción de una pieza musical con características activantes (grupo experimental) versus ruido blanco (grupo control) como modulador del estado de ánimo, desde la perspectiva de las neurociencias, contando con la participación de adultos de entre 18 a 40 años. La inducción emocional de los participantes se realizó a través de la observación de imágenes con valencia emocional negativa. Posteriormente, y bajo una distribución al azar, un grupo de voluntarios escuchó la pieza musical activante y otro grupo escuchó el ruido blanco; ambos estímulos auditivos duraron 3 minutos. Se evaluó el estado emocional antes y después de la percepción auditiva. Los resultados analizados a través de pruebas no paramétricas (test de Wilcoxon) indicaron que la música con características activantes moduló emociones de tristeza y ansiedad, disminuyéndolas significativamente. Estos hallazgos sugieren que la percepción musical presenta potencialidades para la reducción del estrés, así como la ansiedad, brindando evidencia desde un enfoque neurocognitivo.

Abstract Music, from its several possibilities, induces emotional responses, which are reflected in the physiological and cognitive changes of the listeners, this is a thematic of study in common among different disciplines: music psychology, music therapy, music anthropology, neuropsychology, among others. At the neuroanatomical level, neuroimaging studies have shown that music can modulate the activity of limbic and paralimbic structures, that is, structures that are especially involved in the initiation, generation, maintenance, completion and modulation of emotions. Being able to understand how music can affect the mood of people allow us to contribute to the creation of new techniques oriented to emotional regulation through music. The current study was develop with the aim of evaluating the effect of perception of a musical piece, with activating characteristics (experimental group) vs. white noise (control group), as mood modulator, from a neurosientific perspective. Participated 29 young adults (55 % man), between 18 to 40 years old (. = 22.07, SD = .43), with no presence of neurological diseases or amusia, nor consumption of medications at the time of the study. The selection of the musical piece with activating characteristics was evaluated in a preliminary study, which counted with the participation of 24 young adults, who valued three pieces of music in terms of valence (emotion that the piece generated) and arousal (activation level). The 3 pieces were: "Tika Tika Walk" by Carlos D'alessio; "Leafmen" by Danny Elfman and "Define Dancing" by Thomas Newman. From this preliminary study, the activating stimulus that would be used for emotional modulation was selected ("Leafmen" by Danny Elfman). The emotional induction of the participants was carried out through the observation of 24 images with negative emotional valence (extracted from International Affective Picture System). About procedure, the study consisted of a single session of activity, divided into the following five phases: (1) information phase: participants signed the informed consent and completed the socio demographic questionnaire, (2) emotional induction phase: participants observed 24 negative images, and they had to rate each image from 0 to 10 (not arousing/emotional at all to highly arousing/emotional), (3) pre- measurement phase: participants completed a scale of mood, instrument used to measure transient moods, (4) perception phase: under a random distribution, a group of volunteers listened the activating music piece and another group listened the white noise (both for 3 minutes), and finally (5) post-measurement phase: participants completed a scale of mood after music or white noise perception. We analyzed the assumptions of normality and homogeneity of the sample using the statistics of Levenne and Shapiro Wilk. The results analyzed through non-parametric tests (Wilcoxon test, with a . value of .05). In the pre- measurement of mood, no significant differences were found between groups. Results of post- measurement phase indicated that music with activating characteristics, modulated the emotions of sadness and anxiety, decreasing them significantly. The results obtained indicate that music, specifically selected, aided as a modulator of emotions. It is important not to generalize the results obtained to the whole population, in this sense and thinking in future research, it would be necessary to expand the sample to a larger ., as well as to investigate this effect in other samples. The results obtained allow to open new paths in terms of the intrinsic qualities of music and its elements to promote relief of anxiety and stress, regulate moods and, promote motivation or enable the development of mechanisms to adapt to situations new and/or traumatic. Finally, it could be assumed that music constitutes an effective stimulus to modulate emotional responses, which are reflected in the mood changes of the listeners.

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Resumen La ansiedad es definida como la anticipación a una futura amenaza, con una prevalencia que alcanza el 8% en las personas jóvenes a nivel mundial. Objetivo. El propósito de este trabajo fue identificar los efectos de la exposición a música sobre la ansiedad en una muestra de individuos adolescentes entre 10 y 14 años de ambos sexos. Materiales y métodos. Cada uno de los participantes completó un test estandarizado para evaluar su ansiedad. De modo previo a los tratamientos, los participantes completaron las escalas de estado y rasgo del STAI, luego escucharon estímulos sonoros (música relajante, activante o ruido blanco) y finalmente completaron la escala de estado de ansiedad. Resultados. Los resultados indicaron que el estímulo musical con características activantes generó un efecto ansiogénico en los participantes. Conclusiones. Estos datos son relevantes para el campo de la musicoterapia, disciplina que utiliza la música con fines terapéuticos y que aborda los trastornos de ansiedad en diferentes poblaciones.

Abstract Anxiety is defined as the anticipation of a future threat with a prevalence that reaches 8% in young people around the world. Objective. The purpose of this work was to identify the effects of exposure to music on anxiety in a sample of adolescents between 10 and 14 years of age of both sexes. Materials and methods. Each of the participants completed a standardized test to assess their anxiety. Prior to the treatments, the participants completed the STAI status and trait scales, then listened to sound stimuli (relaxing, activating music, or white noise) and finally completed the anxiety status scale. Results. The results indicated that the musical stimulus with activating characteristics generated an anxiogenic effect in the participants. Conclusion. These data are relevant to the field of music therapy, a discipline that uses music with therapeutic purposes and that addresses anxiety disorders in different populations.

Resumo A ansiedade é definida como a antecipação a uma futura ameaça, com uma prevalência que alcança o 8% nas personas jovens a nível mundial. Objetivo. O propósito deste trabalho foi identificar os efeitos da exposição a música sobre a ansiedade em uma amostra de indivíduos adolescentes entre 10 e 14 anos de ambos sexos. Materiais e métodos. Cada um dos participantes completou um teste padronizado para avaliar sua ansiedade. De modo prévio aos tratamentos, os participantes completaram as escadas de estado e rasgo do STAI, depois escutaram estímulos sonoros (música relaxante, ativante ou barulho branco) e finalmente completaram a escada de estado de ansiedade. Resultados. Os resultados indicaram que o estímulo musical com características ativantes gerou um efeito antigênico nos participantes. Conclusões. Estes dados são relevantes para o campo da musicoterapia, disciplina que utiliza a música com fins terapêuticos e que aborda os transtornos de ansiedade em diferentes populações.

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Resumen La memoria emocional alude al efecto que poseen las emociones sobre la formación de recuerdos. En personas que utilizan un segundo idioma, este efecto presenta resultados controversiales. El objetivo de este trabajo fue indagar sobre la relación entre memoria y emoción en sujetos monolingües (ML) y bilingües (BL) español-inglés, a través de una tarea de valoración emocional y de dos tareas de memoria. Participaron 49 sujetos, quienes codificaron una lista de palabras en español (ML y BL) o en inglés (BL) indicando valencia y arousal para cada una. Inmediatamente y siete días después, se evaluaron recuerdo libre y reconocimiento. Para aquellos sujetos que codificaron los estímulos en español (ML y BL) las palabras fueron calificadas con una mayor carga emocional que para aquellos participantes que las codificaron en inglés (BL). Además, el grupo ml presentó mayor cantidad de intrusiones que ambos grupos BL. Existirían factores particulares en el procesamiento de la información emocional que modularían el recuerdo emocional en BL y ML.

Abstract The term emotional memory refers to the particular effect where emotions influence memory formation. This effect is controversial for people who use a second language. This study aims to explore the relationship between memory and emotion on Spanish-English bilingual (BL) and monolingual (ML) adults through an emotional rating task and two memory tasks. The 49 participants (15 ML and 34 BL) encoded a wordlist in either Spanish (ML and BL) or English (BL) while reporting the valence and arousal ratings for each word. All groups took a free recall and recognition task for the list immediately and seven days after encoding. For those subjects who encoded the stimuli in Spanish (ML and BL), the words had a higher emotional load than the ones encoded them in English (BL). Furthermore, the ML-group presented more intrusions than both BL-groups. Particular forms of information processing could modulate memory retrieval on emotional memory for bilinguals and monolinguals.

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The detection and processing of novelty play a critical role in memory formation. The effect of novelty intervention in memory has been demonstrated with rodents in several lines of research; however, it has not been explored as extensively in humans. In this research, we evaluated the effect of novelty exposure on two types of emotional memory: visual (Study 1) and verbal (Study 2). Eighty healthy volunteers participated in both studies. First, all participants watched a video (session 1); seven days later (session 2), participants in the control group watched the same video and those in the experimental condition were exposed to a novel one. Immediately after exposure, all participants looked at 36 pictures (or listened to 36 words). Soon afterward, a two-task test was administered to evaluate memory (immediate free recall and recognition). A week later (session 3), the two-task test was run again (deferred free recall and recognition). Regarding emotional memory processing, the emotional information was more activating and better remembered than the neutral one, for both visual and verbal information. Regarding the novelty effect, the participants exposed to the novel video had better recall than the control on the deferred measures. Thus, our results provide evidence of the effect of novelty exposure on two different types of emotional memory, with great potentialities in clinical and educational settings.

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Abstract Introduction: Aging is a complex, universal and irreversible process, with gradual changes that fluctu-ate from one person to another due to several factors (physiological, biological, environmental, social etc.). There are precedents for the potential effect of music therapy on psychological and social aspects which are characteristic of the elderly. In this sense, the aim of this work is to evaluate the effectiveness of music therapy in improving the quality of life of older adults. Materials and Methods: A quality of life inventory was administered, comparing a group that attended a music therapy stimulation and a control group that did not have this type of stimulus. Results: Music therapy attendees had higher scores in terms of total quality of life and subcomponents of the inventory (religion, creativity, recreation and love). Conclusión: The music therapy approach, with its non-invasive techniques, presents a proposal with potential benefits to improve the quality of life of the elderly.

Resumen Introducción: El envejecimiento es un proceso complejo, universal e irreversible, con cambios graduales que fluctúan de un individuo a otro por diversos factores (fisiológicos, biológicos, ambientales, sociales, etc.). Existen antecedentes del efecto potencial de la musicoterapia sobre aspectos psicológicos y sociales característicos de las personas de la tercera edad. En ese sentido, el objetivo del presente trabajo es evaluar la eficacia de la musicoterapia para mejorar la calidad de vida de los adultos mayores. Materiales y métodos: Se administró un inventario de calidad de vida, comparando un grupo que asistía a un taller de musicoterapia y un grupo control que no tenía este tipo de estimulación. Resultados: Los asistentes a musicoterapia presentaron mayores puntajes en lo que refiere a la calidad de vida total y en subcomponentes del inventario (religión, creatividad, recreación y amor). Conclusión: El abordaje musicoterapéutico, con sus técnicas no invasivas, presenta una propuesta con potenciales beneficios para mejorar la calidad de vida de los adultos mayores.

Resumo Introdução: O envelhecimento é um processo complexo, universal e irreversível, com mudanças graduais que flutuam de um indivíduo a outro por diversos fatores (fisiológicos, biológicos, ambientais, sociais, etc.). Existem antecedentes do efeito potencial da musicoterapia sobre aspetos psicológicos e sociais característicos das pessoas idosas. Neste sentido, o objetivo do presente trabalho é avaliar a eficácia da musicoterapia para melhorar a qualidade de vida dos idosos. Materiais e métodos: Se administrou um inventário de qualidade de vida, comparando um grupo que assistia a um curso de musicoterapia e um grupo controle que não tinha este tipo de estimulação. Resultados: Os assistentes à musicoterapia apresentaram maiores pontuações no que refere à qualidade de vida total e em subcomponentes do inventário (religião, criatividade, recreação e amor). Conclusão: A abordagem musico-terapêutica, com suas técnicas não invasivas, apresenta uma proposta com potenciais benefícios para melhorar a qualidade de vida dos idosos.

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Resumen En el campo de las neurociencias, la creatividad es la capacidad de generar soluciones, ideas nuevas y útiles, o asociaciones múltiples, alternativas y variadas a un problema o estímulo dado. A esta capacidad de creación e innovación subyace una red neuronal cortical y subcortical que soporta la interacción dinámica y constante de funciones cognitivas superiores. Existen diferentes modelos cognitivos que explican cómo funciona nuestra capacidad de crear y diferentes factores asociados al rendimiento creativo como, por ejemplo, el sexo, la personalidad o el entrenamiento. El objetivo del presente trabajo está orientado a revisar los antecedentes científicos en torno a los sustratos neuroanatómicos y funcionales de la creatividad, y el efecto modulador que ejercen los aspectos biológicos, psicológicos y ambientales sobre esta capacidad del ser humano.

Abstract In the field of neuroscience, creativity is the ability to generate solutions, multiple ideas or alternative and varied associations to a given problem or stimulus. It can be understood as a set of cognitive processes that support the generation of new and useful ideas. Behind this capacity for creation and innovation lies a whole cortical and subcortical neural network that supports the dynamic and constant interaction of superior cognitive functions, and different cognitive models that explain how our ability to create works. However, there are also different factors which are associated with creative performance, such as sex, personality or musical training. The aim of this article is to review the background around the neuroanatomical and functional substrates of creativity, as well as the modulating effect exerted by the biological, psychological and environmental aspects about this human being´s ability.

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Resumen El envejecimiento se define como un conjunto de procesos que conllevan cambios biológicos, fisiológicos, psicosociales y funcionales, caracterizados por la manifestación de un deterioro cognitivo gradual y progresivo. Actualmente, hay un fuerte interés en identificar qué factores promueven un envejecimiento cognitivo saludable, así como en identificar qué intervenciones y estrategias brindan protección contra enfermedades neurodegenerativas relacionadas con la edad. Objetivo. El objetivo de la presente revisión sistemática es presentar las investigaciones que usan a la música o la actividad física como intervenciones que modulan aspectos fisiológicos y cognitivos del proceso de envejecimiento. Método. Se incluyeron estudios desde el año 2007 al 2018, cuya búsqueda se realizó en bases de datos (Redalyc, Scielo, Science Direct, PubMed, Taylor, & Francis) y en la que se obtuvieron 34 artículos empíricos (17 relacionados con música y 17 con ejercicio físico). Conclusión. La principal conclusión es que se halla un desempeño cognitivo mejorado en los adultos mayores fruto de este tipo de intervenciones.

Abstract Aging is defined as a set of biological processes genetically determined, that are characterized by the manifestation of gradual and progressive cognitive deterioration. Currently, there is a strong interest to identify which factors promote healthy cognitive aging, and the interventions and strategies that protect against age-related neurodegenerative diseases. The aim of this systematic review is to outline non-pharmacological interventions that included music or physical activity programs for older adults. Studies published between the years of 2007 and 2018 in major databases (Redalyc, Scielo, Science Direct, PubMed, Taylor, & Francis) were included in this review, obtaining 34 empirical articles (17 related with music and 17 with physical activity). The main conclusion is that an enhanced cognitive performance is found in older adults who were exposed to these interventions.

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The aging population is growing rapidly. Proposing interventions that enhance the cognitive functions or strategies that delay the onset of disabilities associated with age is a topic of capital interest for the biopsychosocial health of our species. In this work, we employed musical improvisation as a focal environmental activity to explore its ability to improve memory in older adults. We present two studies: the first one evaluated neutral memory using the Rey Complex Figure (RCF) and the second one evaluated emotional memory using International Affective Picture System (IAPS). A group of 132 volunteers, between the ages of 60 and 90, participated in this investigation. Fifty-one of them were musicians with more than 5 years of formal musical training. After acquisition of neutral (Study 1) or emotional (Study 2) information, the groups of older adults were exposed to music improvisation (experimental intervention) or music imitation (control intervention) for 3 min. We then evaluated memory through two tasks (free recall and recognition), by means of immediate and deferred measures (after a week). We found a significant improvement in memory among participants involved in music improvisation, who remembered more items of the RCF and images from IAPS than the imitation group, both in the immediate and deferred evaluation. On the other hand, participants who had musical knowledge had a better performance in neutral visual memory than non-musicians. Our results suggest that a focal musical activity can be a useful intervention in older adults to promote an enhancement in memory.

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La memoria es una función cognitiva que permite al ser humano adquirir, almacenar y recuperar información. Dentro de la literatura se identifican diversos factores que tienen la capacidad de modificar la capacidad mnémica, así como también afectar las diferentes fases de formación de la memoria. En este sentido el objetivo del presente artículo de revisión sistemática estuvo orientado a presentar los antecedentes en cuanto al efecto de la música, como entrenamiento musical prolongado, así como intervención focal, sobre esta función cognitiva. Se seleccionaron 39 artículos de investigación empírica extraídos de diversas bases de datos. A través de la evidencia presentada se concluye que las propuestas musicales representan una potencial herramienta para abordar no sólo el estudio de la memoria, sino también para la estimulación y rehabilitación de la misma

Memory is a cognitive function that allows the human being to acquire, storage and recovery information. Within the literature there are several factors that had the ability to modify the mnemonic capacity, and to interfere with the different phases of memory. In this sense, the goal of this systematic review was oriented to present the antecedents related to the effect of music, as long-term musical training and also focal acute intervention, on this cognitive function. Thirty-nine articles were selected from several databases. Through the evidence presented it is concluded that musical interventions are a potential tool to approach the study of memory, its stimulation and rehabilitation as well.

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La memoria emocional es una memoria de largo término con contenido emocional, positivo o negativo, donde los eventos emocionales se recuerdan mejor que los neutros. La motivación se define como un impulso para comportarse de una manera determinada, y puede dividirse en intrínseca (sin recompensas) y extrínseca (dirigida a metas). Debido a que los procesos cognitivos son favorecidos por la motivación, el objetivo de este trabajo fue analizar la interacción entre motivación y memoria de imágenes negativas, neutras y positivas, en dos grupos de niñas y niños de 5 años (recompensado y no recompensado). Los grupos no difirieron en el recuerdo de las imágenes de las tres valencias. Sólo en el grupo recompensado, las imágenes negativas fueron mayormente recordadas, lo cual indicaría que la recompensa luego de la tarea, favoreció la evocación posterior, y que este recuerdo fue diferencial en función del contenido emocional de las imágenes.

Emotional memory is defined as a long-term memory with emotional content, positive or negative, where emotional events are better remembered than neutral ones. Motivation is defined as an impulse to behave in a certain way, and can be divided into intrinsic (without rewards) and extrinsic (goal oriented). Cognitive processes are favored by motivation, so the objective of this work was to analyze the interaction between motivation and memory of images with different emotional valence in two groups of 5-year-old children (rewarded and not rewarded). The groups did not differ in the recall of any of the three valences. Only in the rewarding group did the negative images be remembered, which would indicate that the reward after the task favored the later evocation and that this memory was differential according to the emotional content of the images.

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Los estímulos que contienen alto contenido emocional son mejor recordados por sujetos sanos que los estímulos neutros. La música actúa como modulador de la memoria emocional en sujetos músicos y no músicos. El papel que juega en patologías neurodegenerativas, como lo es la demencia tipo Alzheimer, ha sido poco estudiado. Algunos estudios sugieren que la capacidad musical se encuentra deteriorada en este tipo de pacientes, con lo cual, ésta parecería ser irrelevante a la hora de considerar las emociones que la música despierta en ellos. El presente trabajo tiene como objetivo realizar una revisión bibliográfica acerca de la modulación de la memoria emocional a través de la música en sujetos sin patología y pacientes con demencia, así como también de las habilidades, tanto emocionales como musicales, conservadas y deterioradas en pacientes con esta patología.

Healthy subjects remember high emotional stimuli better than neutral stimuli. Music acts as a modulator of emotional memory in musicians and non-musicians. The role it plays in neurodegenerative pathologies, such as Alzheimer\'s disease, has been scarcely studied. Some studies suggest that musical ability is impaired in this type of patients, which would seem to be irrelevant when considering the emotions that music arouses in them. The aim of the present study is to review the literature about the modulation of emotional memory through music in subjects without pathology and patients with dementia, as well as the emotional and musical abilities, preserved and impaired in patients with this pathology.

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El presente artículo enumera una serie de procesos psicológicos vinculados con la respuesta que se ocasiona en los individuos frente a una omisión o supresión de un refuerzo esperado. Se discute la relevancia y complejidad de dicho proceso a la luz de las posibles áreas de estudio que involucra la conducta de frustración en humanos.

The present article mentions a serie of psychological processes related to the response that occurs in individuals against an omission or suppression of an expected reinforcement. The relevance and complexity of this process are discussed in light of the possible areas that are involved in the frustration behavior in humans.

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La musicoterapia es una disciplina que progresivamente está ampliando su campo de abordaje. Dentro de las nuevas intervenciones se pueden mencionar las implementadas en pacientes con estado alterado de conciencia y cuadros patológicos, producto de lesiones neuronales adquiridas que involucran al sistema reticular. La formación reticular es una red neuronal que establece conexiones con gran parte del sistema nervioso, regulando el alerta general, la dirección de la atención y la transición entre sueño y vigilia. A partir de esto, el trabajo que se informa está centrado en una descripción general de los diferentes estados alterados de conciencia y las intervenciones de una disciplina científica, con técnicas no invasivas que utiliza el sonido y sus elementos específicamente en el diagnóstico y abordaje terapéutico de pacientes en estado de mínima conciencia y su efecto en la formación reticular, teniendo como objetivo principal la rehabilitación del paciente y el aumento de sus niveles de alerta. Las técnicas en musicoterapia se basan en los resultados positivos del efecto de ciertos parámetros sonoros tales como la melodía, los aspectos temporales, la armonía, sobre indicadores fisiológicos (frecuencia respiratoria y cardíaca, conductancia de la piel, niveles de cortisol, etc.), que proporcionan un marco organizativo. A través de dicho marco las personas pueden responder e interactuar por medio de las propuestas musicales, determinadas por características, tales como la simplicidad, la utilización de la voz sin acompañamiento, improvisando vocales, melodías repetitivas, música de baja densidad cronométrica unida a la velocidad respiratoria del paciente y que pertenezca a su entorno familiar.

Music-therapy is a scientific discipline that in the last years has extended its work fields, to multiple populations and pathologies. Among the new interventions is the one related to altered conscious states, which are pathological disorders product of acquired neuronal lesions that involved the reticular system. Currently, there are different and varied models music-therapy that works with patients with altered consciousness states and the pathologies associated to those disorders. Parallel to the cognitive rehabilitation a branch emerged called neurological music-therapy, which is based in the neuroscientific model of musical production and perception and it is defined as the therapeutic application of music and theirs discursive elements in people who suffered motor, cognitive and sensorial deficits caused by neurological diseases. The reticular system is a neuronal network, known as a complex area due to its anatomy and functional heterogeneity. This network stablish connections with a large portion of the nervous system, acts as a filter system as it is responsible for separating incoming stimuli, discriminating between those relevant and not relevant, and it regulates the general alert, direction of attention, transition between awake, and sleep states. The lesions and deficits that involved the reticular system had been a point of scientific interest for many years. There are two main components related to conscience: the arousal or wakefulness (be aware) and the awareness (the content of conscience). The arousal is considered a preparation state to action that consists in primitive behaviors to the environment, i.e. involuntary behaviors. To maintain the arousal intervenes the ascendant reticular system. While awareness involved a complex process, a cognitive elaboration of thought. Such elaboration encompasses the process of information that is received through the senses and environmental demands. When these processes are interrupted because of traumas or anomalies could generated a coma or states where the content of conscious are affected. After the brain injury, the patients are in a coma state and from there they could emerged with different long-term results: Post-traumatic amnesia, Minimal conscious state, vegetative state or death. The music-therapy techniques used with this population are descripted in this work from a neurological model, which is based in empirical evidence. This evidence is result of the effect of specific sound parameters (as melody, rhythm, harmony) upon physiological indicators (as heart rate, respiratory frequency, skin conductance, cortisol levels, among others), as well as the use of familiar music for the patient, detecting physiological indicators during musical experiences. The music-therapy techniques provide and motivate an organizational framework through which patients with severe disorders of their expressive and receptive linguistic abilities could respond and interact through musical applications. These techniques are possible because music is an innate ability of all human beings, also because the auditive system is the first sense that develops in the intrauterine level. The characteristics of music-therapy techniques are defined for simplicity, the use of the voice, where repetitive melodies are improvised, without breaking the laws of musical expectation, with low chronometric density music; this type of music go along with the respiratory speed of the patient. Also the musical history of the patient is taken into account to enable a familiar environment. With this background, the current work focuses in a general description of the different conscious states, the implication of reticular system and the interventions of music-therapy as a scientific discipline that offers non-invasive techniques that used the sound and their elements to test, to diagnostic and to treat patients in a minimal state of conscious. This technique has the ultimate goal of rehabilitate the cognitive functions and enhance the alert levels, besides providing a reinforcement for the interdisciplinary approach.

RESUMO

During extinction, the organism learns that a conditioned stimulus or a conditioned response is no longer associated with an unconditioned stimulus, and as a consequence, a decrement in the response is presented. The exposure to novel situations (e.g. exploration of a novel open field) has been used widely to modulate (i.e. either enhance or deteriorate) learning and memory. The aim of the present study was to test whether open-field exposure could modulate consummatory extinction. The results indicated that open-field exposure accelerated the extinction response (i.e. experimental animals provided novelty exposure had lower consummatory behavior than control animals) when applied before - but not after - the first extinction trial, or when applied before the second extinction trial. The results suggest that environmental treatments such as novelty exposure provide a valuable, nonpharmacological alternative to potentially modulate extinction processes.

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RESUMO

Successive negative contrast (SNC) is an incentive relativity procedure that has been widely used to model emotional reactivity in rodents. The reward downshift experienced during SNC is thought to result in frustration. The exploration of a novel open field (OF), a complex situation involving stress induction and novelty detection, can enhance or block the acquisition of associative and non-associative memories. Previous experiments found a modulatory effect of OF, applied before downshift trials, on SNC. This schedule, however, can affect retention performance by influencing attentional, motivational, motor or sensory-perceptual mechanisms at training or retention testing. The use of post-training OF exposure avoids these confounds. This work assessed the effect of OF exposure after the acquisition of the downshifted memory, with the goal of targeting the consolidation of this mnemonic trace. We also investigated the involvement of the cholinergic and adrenergic systems in this phenomenon. The results indicated that OF facilitates recovery from reward loss and that both transmitter systems, cholinergic and adrenergic, play a role in this effect of OF.

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RESUMO

Frustration can be defined as an emotional state generated by the omission or devaluation in the quantity or quality of an expected appetitive reward. Thus, reactivity to a reward is affected by prior experience with the different reinforcer values of that reward. This phenomenon is known as incentive relativity, and can be studied by different paradigms. Although methodologically simple, the exploration of a novel open field (OF) is a complex situation that involves several behavioral processes, including stress induction and novelty detection. OF exposure can enhance or block the acquisition of associative and non-associative memories. These experiments evaluated the effect of OF exploration on frustration and the role played by the cholinergic system in this phenomenon. OF exploration before first or second trial of incentive downshift modulated the expression of frustration. This effect of OF was blocked by the administration of scopolamine either before or after OF exploration. These results indicate that the cholinergic system is involved in the acquisition and consolidation of OF information.

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