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A 70-year-old male presented to emergency room 16 h after the onset of acute chest pain. Initial ECG showed sinus rhythm with a wide QRS and right bundle branch block (RBBB) with concordant and symmetric T waves in V1-V2. A plausible explanation for the atypical positive T waves in leads V1-V2 in conjunction with RBBB could be non-reperfused lateral MI (LMI) as a "mirror-image" of inverted T waves in the posterior leads V7-V9. Coronary angiography showed total thrombotic occlusion TIMI thrombus grade 5 of the circumflex artery. One ECG expression of circumflex artery occlusion is isolated LMI.

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BACKGROUND: The diagnosis of acute ischaemic coronary syndromes in presence of an intra-ventricular conduction disturbance represents a clinical challenge. In the cardiac segmentation model the posterior wall is replaced by the basal inferior segment. However, in the clinical scenario of acute coronary syndrome the concept of posterior myocardial infarction (PMI) endures. The association of a PMI and right bundle branch block (RBBB) is a rare condition characterised by broad R waves and ventricular repolarization disorders in right precordial leads in both entities, which could lead to misinterpretation and delay in reperfusion therapy. CASE SUMMARY: We describe a case report of a 74-year-old man with acute chest pain and an electrocardiogram with broad R waves, a 4 mm ST-segment downsloping (excessively discordant) in right precordial leads, RBBB, and ST-segment elevation in posterior leads. There was resolution of ST-segment downsloping in right precordial leads after percutaneous coronary intervention and stenting of the circumflex artery, with disturbance of the repolarization process only attributable to RBBB. DISCUSSION: Patients with acute chest pain with RBBB and a ST segment with an excessive downsloping (out of proportion of what is expected in isolated RBBB) suggest PMI with occlusion of the circumflex coronary artery.

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El corazón es una bomba hidráulica cuya función es abastecer de sangre oxigenada a todos los tejidos y enviar la sangre insaturada a los pulmones para mantener la vida; es un órgano que trabaja sin descanso desde antes del nacimiento, se estima que el corazón de un individuo de 75 años ha latido más de 550 millones de veces. Tradicionalmente se ha considerado que el corazón es un órgano formado por células diferenciadas, lo que significa que el corazón tiene al morir las misma miofibrillas que tuvo al nacer, pero estudios recientes confirman que el corazón es un órgano dinámico, por lo que entre los 20 y los 100 años, el compartimento celular cardiaco ha sido reemplazado de 10 a 15 veces. Hoy se conoce mejor la fisiología y la fisiopatología del las células miocárdicas, y la importancia que tienen las partes terminales de los cromosomas llamadas telómeros, los que acortan su longitud cada vez que se replican; sin embargo, se pueden restaurar por la enzima transcriptasa reversa telomerasa; cuando los telómeros reducen su longitud a un nivel crítico, la pérdida de su función induce la disfunción endotelial; esa disminución de la longitud de los telómeros está en relación directa con la senectud del corazón. Diversos padecimientos crónicos afectan la vida del corazón: la hipertensión arterial, la diabetes mellitus, la aterosclerosis, etc., por lo que es importante descubrirlas tempranamente, y tratarlas en forma adecuada, haciendo una prevención secundaria de males mayores.

The heart is an hydraulic pump whose function is to provide oxygenated blood to all tissues, and to send unsaturated blood back to the lungs to maintain life; is an organ which pumps tireless since before birth; it is estimated that a 75 year old man heart has had more than 550 million beats in his lifetime. Traditionally the heart was considered as formed by differentiated cells, which means that en old age, the heart has the same myocells it had at birth, but recent investigations confirm that heart is a dynamic organ, and between the years 20 an 100, its cell compartment has been replaced from 10 to 15 times. Today the heart physiology and pathophysiology of the myocardial cells is better understood, as well as the role of the final portions of chromosomes, named telomers, which shorten its terminal ends as they replicate; nevertheless, they are able to restore its function through the enzyme transcriptase reverse telomerase; when the telomers reduce its length to a critical point, this loss of function induce endothelial dysfunction; the shortening of the telomers length is directly related to the heart senescence. Several chronic diseases affect the heart: high blood pressure, diabetes mellitus, atherosclerosis, etc., therefore it is important to detect them early and to treat them accordingly, for a secondary prevention may avoid further disorders.

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One of the most common indications in echocardiography is the evaluation of left ventricular function. The traditional measurement of ejection fraction is based upon tracing the left ventricular borders and calculating left ventricular volumes using geometric assumptions. Now, with the introduction of three-dimensional echocardiography, the evaluation of left ventricular function is easier to carry out and with superior accuracy and reproducibility. However, regional myocardial function is more difficult to evaluate because it relies on visual assessment of endocardial motion and wall thickening. Currently, new techniques like tissue Doppler and speckle tracking imaging allow regional and global quantification of myocardial function through new parameters, like deformation/strain, rotation and twist. In this regard, speckletracking echocardiography (STE) has been introduced as a technique for angle-independent quantification of multidirectional myocardial strain and rotation. With the arrival of three-dimensional systems, the entire left ventricle can be evaluated with this technique, lacking the inherent weakness of two- dimensional and tissue Doppler methods. Three dimensional speckle tracking (3DST) has potential to be an ideal tool to assess not only global myocardial function but regional function through deformation, rotation, twist and untwisting parameters.

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One of the most common indications in echocardiography is the evaluation of left ventricular function. The traditional measurement of ejection fraction is based upon tracing the left ventricular borders and calculating left ventricular volumes using geometric assumptions. Now, with the introduction of three-dimensional echocardiography, the evaluation of left ventricular function is easier to carry out and with superior accuracy and reproducibility. However, regional myocardial function is more difficult to evaluate because it relies on visual assessment of endocardial motion and wall thickening. Currently, new techniques like tissue Doppler and speckle tracking imaging allow regional and global quantification of myocardial function through new parameters, like deformation/strain, rotation and twist. In this regard, speckletracking echocardiography (STE) has been introduced as a technique for angle-independent quantification of multidirectional myocardial strain and rotation. With the arrival of three-dimensional systems, the entire left ventricle can be evaluated with this technique, lacking the inherent weakness of two-dimensional and tissue Doppler methods. Three dimensional speckle tracking (3DST) has potential to be an ideal tool to assess not only global myocardial function but regional function through deformation, rotation, twist and untwisting parameters.

La evaluación de la función ventricular es una indicación común en ecocardiografía. La medición de la fracción de expulsión como medida de función ventricular se basa en el trazado del endocardio ventricular y el cálculo de volúmenes ventriculares a través de suposiciones geométricas. Con el advenimiento de la tecnología tridimensional en ecocardiografía, la valoración de la función ventricular se puede realizar de manera más rápida, sencilla, precisa y reproducible. Sin embargo, la estimación de la función regional es una tarea difícil de realizar ya que ésta se basa en la apreciación visual del engrasamiento y movimiento del endocardio ventricular. Actualmente nuevas técnicas como el Doppler tisular y el reconocimiento de patrones acústicos (speckle tracking) han permitido cuantificar la función ventricular regional y global a través del uso de parámetros de deformación, rotación y torsión. El reconocimiento de patrones por ecocardiografía es una técnica que no depende del ángulo de insonación del haz de ultrasonido y que permite la cuantificación multidireccional de la deformación y la rotación del miocardio. Hoy en día, la aplicación de esta técnica a los sistemas de ecocardiografía tridimensional ha permitido una mejor estimación de la función ventricular sin los inconvenientes de la ecocardiografía Doppler y bidimensional. El seguimiento de patrones por ecocardiografía tridimensional tiene el potencial de ser una herramienta ideal para la cuantificación de la función ventricular global y regional a través de parámetros de deformación, rotación y torsión.

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A complete ECG thoracic circle allows exploring some heart structures not explored by the conventional electrocardiogram. It provides a direct indication on the location of the damaged myocardium. In fact, posterolateral infarctions can be limited to the inferior third of the left ventricle or can cover the entire free left ventricular wall from the base up to the heart apex and can be univentricular or biventricular. On the other side, the unipolar thoracic leads and the high abdominal leads MD, ME, MI show the evolution of the signs of injury, characteristic of the acute stage of infarction, toward necrosis. We present the example of a 61-year-old man, whose ECG shows signs of subepicardial or transmural injury and of necrosis in the low precordial leads V5 and V6, as well as in the high left posterior leads V8 and V9. This fact suggests the presence of an acute extensive myocardial infarction extending from the base to the heart apex. Moreover, the moderate elevation of the RS-T segment from to V9R to V7R indicates the presence of subepicardial injury in the high posterior regions of the right ventricular wall. These electrocardiographic data were confirmed by the radioactive isotope study and, definitively, by the anatomical findings.

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A complete ECG thoracic circle allows exploring some heart structures not explored by the conventional electrocardiogram. It provides a direct indication on the location of the damaged myocardium. In fact, posterolateral infarctions can be limited to the inferior third of the left ventricle or can cover the entire free left ventricular wall from the base up to the heart apex and can be univentricular or biventricular. On the other side, the unipolar thoracic leads and the high abdominal leads MD, ME, MI show the evolution of the signs of injury, characteristic of the acute stage of infarction, toward necrosis. We present the example of a 61-year-old man, whose ECG shows signs of subepicardial or transmural injury and of necrosis in the low precordial leads V5 and V6, as well as in the high left posterior leads V8 and V9. This fact suggests the presence of an acute extensive myocardial infarction extending from the base to the heart apex. Moreover, the moderate elevation of the RS-T segment from to V9R to V7R indicates the presence of subepicardial injury in the high posterior regions of the right ventricular wall. These electrocardiographic data were confirmed by the radioactive isotope study and, definitively, by the anatomical findings.

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The purpose of this study is to calculate non invasivelly left ventricular systolic wall stress by echocardiography in patients with primary heart failure, and compare the results with those obtained in parients with overloaded heart failure, diastolic dysfunction by Inapropiatte hypertrophy, with normal ejection fraction and people with normal heart, there stablish the value of the results in clinical settings. We studied 33 patients with heart failure by dilated cardiomyopathy. There was no significant association between the systolic wall stress and the ejection fraction, fractional shortening, dp/dt or left ventricular mass in this group of study. There was a significant association between systolic h/r ratio and the systolic wall stress. This study shows that in primary heart failure the afterload increases and has inverse relationship with ejection fraction (r = 0.86); but, when heart failure obey to an excessive overload exists an exquisite inverse relationship between systolic wall stress and ejection fraction (r = 0.93). The excessive hypertrophy (Inappropriate) reduces the systolic wall stress but causes diastolic dysfunction. The increase of systolic wall stress in Aortic regurgitation with normal ventricular performance is responsible of adequate left ventricular hypertrophy, by other means, in mitral insufficiency the presence of low or normal systolic wall The purpose of this study is to calculate non invasivelly left ventricular systolic wall stress by echocardiography in patients with primary heart failure, and compare the results with those obtained in parients with overloaded heart failure, diastolic dysfunction by Inapropiatte hypertrophy, with normal ejection fraction and people with normal heart, there stablish the value of the results in clinical settings. We studied 33 patients with heart failure by dilated cardiomyopathy. There was no significant association between the systolic wall stress and the ejection fraction, fractional shortening, dp/dt or left ventricular mass in this group of study. There was a significant association between systolic h/r ratio and the systolic wall stress. This study shows that in primary heart failure the afterload increases and has inverse relationship with ejection fraction (r = 0.86); but, when heart failure obey to an excessive overload exists an exquisite inverse relationship between systolic wall stress and ejection fraction (r = 0.93). The excessive hypertrophy (Inappropriate) reduces the systolic wall stress but causes diastolic dysfunction. The increase of systolic wall stress in Aortic regurgitation with normal ventricular performance is responsible of adequate left ventricular hypertrophy, by other means, in mitral insufficiency the presence of low or normal systolic wall stress does not induce left ventricular hypertrophy, then diameter increases and the hypertrophy is inadequate, despite this, left ventricular function is normal.

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The purpose of this study is to calculate non invasivelly left ventricular systolic wall stress by echocardiography in patients with primary heart failure, and compare the results with those obtained in parients with overloaded heart failure, diastolic dysfunction by Inapropiatte hypertrophy, with normal ejection fraction and people with normal heart, there stablish the value of the results in clinical settings. We studied 33 patients with heart failure by dilated cardiomyopathy. There was no significant association between the systolic wall stress and the ejection fraction, fractional shortening, dp/dt or left ventricular mass in this group of study. There was a significant association between systolic h/r ratio and the systolic wall stress. This study shows that in primary heart failure the afterload increases and has inverse relationship with ejection fraction (r = 0.86); but, when heart failure obey to an excessive overload exists an exquisite inverse relationship between systolic wall stress and ejection fraction (r = 0.93). The excessive hypertrophy (Inappropriate) reduces the systolic wall stress but causes diastolic dysfunction. The increase of systolic wall stress in Aortic regurgitation with normal ventricular performance is responsible of adequate left ventricular hypertrophy, by other means, in mitral insufficiency the presence of low or normal systolic wall The purpose of this study is to calculate non invasivelly left ventricular systolic wall stress by echocardiography in patients with primary heart failure, and compare the results with those obtained in parients with overloaded heart failure, diastolic dysfunction by Inapropiatte hypertrophy, with normal ejection fraction and people with normal heart, there stablish the value of the results in clinical settings. We studied 33 patients with heart failure by dilated cardiomyopathy. There was no significant association between the systolic wall stress and the ejection fraction, fractional shortening, dp/dt or left ventricular mass in this group of study. There was a significant association between systolic h/r ratio and the systolic wall stress. This study shows that in primary heart failure the afterload increases and has inverse relationship with ejection fraction (r = 0.86); but, when heart failure obey to an excessive overload exists an exquisite inverse relationship between systolic wall stress and ejection fraction (r = 0.93). The excessive hypertrophy (Inappropriate) reduces the...

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OBJECTIVE: To determine the systolic parietal stress of the left ventricle by image of magnetic resonance in healthy subjects. MATERIAL AND METHODS: 21 healthy subjects studied: 11 male and 10 female: the ages among 26 and 31 years (29.33). A magnetic resonance of heart was made using the short axis at the level of the papillary muscles, from where the epicardic and endocardic areas of the left ventricular cavity were obtained in diastolic as in systolic by means of the layout with an electronic pencil, later the radius of each drawn up area was calculated, with the value of the radius, the diastolic and systolic thickness was calculated; to obtain the relation between thickness/radio. Once the relation was obtained between thickness/radio in diastole as systole the degree of change between both values and the percentage of this change was calculated. Finally, the systolic parietal stress developed by the left ventricle was calculate with the following formula: S = PVI x A4/A3-A4 x 1.35.PVI: systolic pressure of the left ventricle (the average of 5 synchronized systolic arterial pressures, obtained by an esphingomanometer). A4: endocardic area in systole; A3: epicardial area in systole. The value obtained in this equation was multiplied per 1.35 to turn mmHg gm/cm2. RESULTS: The average of the arterial systolic pressure was of 103.24 +/- 10.27 mmHg; A3 (average 27.58 +/- 2.29); A4 (average 6.84 +/- 0.71); being the systolic stress of the left ventricle of 46.12 +/- 4.9 gm/cm2, not existing significant differences between sexes. CONCLUSIONS: With this new method it is possible to determine with greater exactitude in a noninvasive way, through the best definition of its epicardic and endocardic edges, the areas and the radio of the left ventricular cavity in systole as in diastole, to determine the thickness of the wall and its relation with the radius, for one better valuation of the ventricular function, specially in those subjects with overloads of volume or pressure that depress the ventricular function.

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Objetivo: Determinar el estrés meridional parietal sistólico del ventrículo izquierdo por imagen de resonancia magnética en sujetos sanos. Material y métodos: Se estudiaron 21 sujetos sanos: 11 pertenecían al sexo masculino y 10 al femenino: su edad varió entre 26 y 31 años (29.33). Se les realizó el estudio de resonancia magnética de corazón utilizando el eje corto a nivel de los músculos papilares, de donde se obtuvieron las áreas epicárdicas y endocárdicas de la cavidad ventricular izquierda tanto en diastole como en sístole mediante el trazado con un lápiz electrónico, posteriormente se calculó el radio de cada área trazada, con el valor del radio, se calculó el espesor diastólico y sistólico; para posteriormente obtener la relación grosor/radio. Ya obtenida la relación grosor/radio tanto en diastole como sístole se calculó el grado de cambio entre ambos valores y el porcentaje de dicho cambio. Finalmente se calculó el estrés meridional parietal sistólico desarrollado por el ventrículo izquierdo mediante la siguiente fórmula: S=PVI x A4/A3-A4 x 1.35. PVI: presión sistólica del ventrículo izquierdo (promedio de 5 tomas simultáneas de presión arterial sistólica, obtenidas mediante esfingomanómetro). A4: área endocárdica en sístole; A3: área epicárdica en sístole. El valor obtenido en esta ecuación se multiplicó por 1.35 para convertir mmHg en gm/cm². Resultados: La presión arterial sistólica media fue de 103.24 ± 10.27 mmHg; A3 (media 27.58 ± 2.29); A4 (media 6.84 ± 0.71); siendo el estrés meridional sistólico del ventrículo izquierdo de 46.12 ± 4.9 gm/cm², no existiendo diferencias significativas en cuanto al sexo. Conclusiones: Con este nuevo método es posible determinar con mayor exactitud de manera no invasiva, a través de la mejor definición de sus bordes epicárdicos y endocárdicos, las áreas y los radios de la cavidad ventricular izquierda tanto en sístole como en diastole, determinar el grosor de la pared y su relación con el radio, esto para una mejor valoración de la función ventricular, en especial en los sujetos con sobrecargas de presión o de volumen que deprimen la función ventricular.

Objective: To determine the systolic parietal stress of the left ventricle by image of magnetic resonance in healthy subjects. Material and methods: 21 healthy subjects studied: 11 male and 10 female: the ages among 26 and 31 years (29.33). A magnetic resonance of heart was made using the short axis at the level of the papillary muscles, from where the epicardio and endocardio areas of the left ventricular cavity were obtained in diastolic as in systolic by means of the layout with an electronic pencil, later the radius of each drawn up area was calculated, with the value of the radius, the diastolic and systolic thickness was calculated; to obtain the relation between thickness/radio. Once the relation was obtained between thickness/radio in diastole as systole the degree of change between both values and the percentage of this change was calculated. Finally, the systolic parietal stress developed by the left ventricle was calculate with the following formula: S=PVI x A4/A3-A4 x 1.35.PVI: systolic pressure of the left ventricle (the average of 5 synchronized systolic arterial pressures, obtained by an esphingomanometer). A4: endocardio area in systole; A3: epicardial area in systole. The value obtained in this equation was multiplied per 1.35 to turn mmHg gm/cm². Results: The average of the arterial systolic pressure was of 103.24 ± 10.27 mmHg; A3 (average 27.58 ± 2.29); A4 (average 6.84 ± 0.71); being the systolic stress of the left ventricle of 46.12 ± 4.9 gm/cm², not existing significant differences between sexes. Conclusions: With this new method it is possible to determine with greater exactitude in a noninvasive way, through the best definition of its epicardio and endocardic edges, the areas and the radio of the left ventricular cavity in systole as in diastole, to determine the thickness of the wall and its relation with the radius, for one better valuation of the ventricular function, specially in those subjects with overloads of volume or pressure that depress the ventricular function.

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En este escrito se analizan los conceptos de función sistólica, función diastólica, insuficiencia cardíaca, disfunción diastólica e insuficiencia cardíaca diastólica. Se hace referencia a la evolución histórica del concepto de insuficiencia cardíaca y el origen del término insuficiencia cardíaca diastólica. A la luz de los conocimientos actuales de la fisiología del corazón y de su fisiopatología se discute lo inapropiado del término y a la confusión a que ha dado origen en la práctica clínica, en el tratamiento, en el pronóstico y en numerosos trabajos de investigación (de los cuales se presentan algunos ejemplos) al denominar como "insuficiencia cardíaca" a la disfunción diastólica y utilizar ambos términos en forma intercambiable. Se concluye en que emerge una necesidad creciente y cada vez más imperativa en identificar claramente los conceptos de insuficiencia cardíaca y el de disfunción diastólica, haciendo notar sus diferencias para reconocerlas como entidades clínicas distintas con personalidad propia y que por lo tanto tienen pronóstico y tratamiento diferente; ello ayudaría importantemente para que las guías clínicas, los lineamientos y consensos pudieran llevarse a cabo con mayor precisión, especialmente en lo que se refiere al tratamiento; también sería muy útil para que el diseño de los trabajos de investigación no tuvieran las incongruencias que ahora son aparentes en algunos de ellos solamente por la falta de conceptualización clara de los términos. Finalmente, en la actualidad contamos con los elementos necesarios para concluir que los términos "insuficiencia cardíaca diastólica" o "insuficiencia cardíaca con función sistólica conservada" son inexactos, poco afortunados y alejados del problema real que tratan de definir, por lo que deberían ser sustituidos por el concepto de Disfunción diastólica que define fisiopatológicamente la alteración funcional, sin tener que aseverar que "el corazón es insuficiente".

This paper reviews the concepts of systolic function, diastolic function, heart failure, diastolic dysfunction, and diastolic heart failure. We refer to the historic evolution of the concept of heart failure and the origin of the term diastolic heart failure. Based on the current concepts of the physiology of the heart and its pathophysiology, we discuss the inappropriateness of the term and to the confusion it has generated in clinical practice, treatment, and prognosis, as well as in numerous research papers (of which some examples are given) when terming as "heart failure" the diastolic dysfunction and using both terms indistinctively. We conclude that an increasing need has arisen, ever more imperative, to identify clearly the concepts of heart failure and diastolic dysfunction, emphasizing on their differences to recognize them as distinct clinical entities with their own personality and, hence, having different prognosis and treatment. This would be of great help to achieve more accuracy in the clinical guidelines, standards, and consensus, especially regarding treatment. Besides it would be useful to avoid, inconsistencies in the design of research, which appear in some of the publications just by the lack of a clear meaning of the terms. Finally, at present we have the necessary elements to conclude that the terms "diastolic heart failure" and "cardiac failure with preserved systolic function" are inexact, poorly gauged, and far away from the actual problem they try to define. Therefore, they should be substituted by the concept of Diastolic Dysfunction, which defines clearly the pathophysiology of the functional alteration, without having to state that "the heart is failing". (Arch Cardiol Mex 2003; 73:291-300).

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The echocardiogram is an easily accessible procedure to study patients with heart disease. It is very useful specifically to establish a diagnosis of heart failure and to distinguish this condition from other diseases with similar clinical manifestations, which require different treatment and with distinct prognosis. Once the diagnosis has been established with certainty, other parameters must be obtained, such as ejection fraction, ventricular mass, mass/volume ratio, thickness/radius ratio (h/r), dP/dT of the left ventricle, and a recording of transmitral blood flow can be obtained by means of pulsed and continuous Doppler blood flow. All these measurements not only quantify the degree of heart failure but also have a powerful prognostic implications.

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