RESUMO
We investigate the educational and employment consequences of having a gender discordant name - one that is also given to people of a different gender. People with discordant names may be more likely to experience stigma due to the conflicting signal between their gender and the perceptions of femininity or masculinity associated with their names. Our primary measure of discordance is based on the percentage of men and women with each first name, using a large administrative dataset from Brazil. We find that both men and women with gender discordant names attain significantly less education. Gender discordant names are also negatively and significantly associated with earnings though, after controlling for educational attainment, only people with the most discordant names have significantly lower earnings. These results are corroborated when using crowd-sourced gender perceptions of names in our dataset, which suggests that stereotypes and the judgments of others are a probable mechanism for the observed disparities.
Assuntos
Identidade de Gênero , Masculinidade , Masculino , Humanos , Feminino , Feminilidade , Emprego , Escolaridade , BrasilRESUMO
Using data from the 2010 Census of Brazil, this article quantitatively examines the phenomenon of sibling differences in racial classification. In sum, the findings demonstrate that within-sibling racial heterogeneity occurs in 17-19% of families. The strongest predictor of racial discordance between siblings is racial discordance between parents. Furthermore, within-sibling regression models establish that race exhibits a modest but statistically significant association with some education and labor market outcomes. Most outcomes are not associated with race for siblings aged 15-19, although in families with both sexes, darker females have more favorable educational outcomes, while darker males have less favorable outcomes. In contrast, darker siblings aged 20-25 are less advantaged than their lighter brothers and sisters along a number of dimensions. They have significantly lower education, lower personal income, lower formal employment, and lower occupational status. It is argued that patterns for siblings aged 20-25 may be indicative of individual racial discrimination.