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Resumen Pese a la evolución del marco de metas de logro 3 × 2, la investigación sobre los tres referentes de competencia y su relación con variables motivacionales en estudiantes de educación primaria es inexistente. Los objetivos de la investigación fueron dos: (a) examinar la validez estructural del Cuestionario Tridimensional de Competencia Percibida en Educación Física, y (b) analizar los patrones predictivos de las dimensiones de competencia sobre las regulaciones motivacionales y la autoeficacia en el aprendizaje. Participaron 502 estudiantes (242 chicas) de 4.º y 5.º de educación primaria de 11 colegios del norte de España. Los resultados del CFA (análisis factorial confirmatorio), así como de otros modelos (ESEM, CFA-bifactor y ESEM-bifactor) apoyaron el modelo hipotético (tridimensional). Los parámetros del modelo testado se mantuvieron invariantes a través del sexo. La validez y consistencia interna fueron satisfactorias. Los análisis de regresión mostraron patrones predictivos de competencia-yo y competencia-tarea más adaptativos que los de competencia-otro. Los resultados respaldan los postulados del modelo tridimensional de metas de logro y sugieren la diferenciación de tres estándares de competencia desde primaria. Se deberían enfatizar referentes intrapersonales y absolutos, y priorizar el desarrollo de la competencia-yo.

Abstract Abstract Despite the evolution of the 3 × 2 achievement goal framework, research on three references of competence and its relationship with motivational variables in primary school students is non-existent. The objectives of this research were two: (a) to examine the structural validity of the Questionnaire of Three-dimensional Perceived Competence in Physical Education, and (b) to analyze the predictive patterns of the dimensions of competence on motivational regulations and self-efficacy in learning. A sample of 502 (242 girls) 4th and 5th primary students from 11 schools in northern Spain participated. The results of the CFA, as well as other models (ESEM, CFA-bifactor and ESEM-bifactor) supported the hypothetical model (three-dimensional). The parameters of the tested model were kept invariant through sex. The validity and internal consistency were satisfactory. Regression analysis showed predictive patterns of self-competence and task-competence more adaptive than those of other-competence. The results support the postulates of a three-dimensional achievement goal model and suggest the differentiation of three competence standards from primary education. Intrapersonal and absolute referents should be emphasized, and prioritize the development of self-competence.

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The endocannabinoid system participates in the regulation of CNS homeostasis and functions, including neurotransmission, cell signaling, inflammation and oxidative stress, as well as neuronal and glial cell proliferation, differentiation, migration and survival. Endocannabinoids are produced by multiple cell types within the CNS and their main receptors, CB1 and CB2, are expressed in both neurons and glia. Signaling through these receptors is implicated in the modulation of neuronal and glial alterations in neuroinflammatory, neurodegenerative and psychiatric conditions, including Alzheimer's, Parkinson's and Huntington's disease, multiple sclerosis, amyotrophic lateral sclerosis, stroke, epilepsy, anxiety and depression. The therapeutic potential of endocannabinoid receptors in neurological disease has been hindered by unwelcome side effects of current drugs used to target them; however, due to their extensive expression within the CNS and their involvement in physiological and pathological process in nervous tissue, they are attractive targets for drug development. The present review highlights the potential applications of the endocannabinoid system for the prevention and treatment of neurologic and psychiatric disorders.

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The gut-microbiome-brain axis is now recognized as an essential part in the regulation of systemic metabolism and homeostasis. Accumulating evidence has demonstrated that dietary patterns can influence the development of metabolic alterations and inflammation through the effects of nutrients on a multitude of variables, including microbiome composition, release of microbial products, gastrointestinal signaling molecules, and neurotransmitters. These signaling molecules are, in turn, implicated in the regulation of the immune system, either promoting or inhibiting the production of pro-inflammatory cytokines and the expansion of specific leukocyte subpopulations, such as Th17 and Treg cells, which are relevant in the development of neuroinflammatory and neurodegenerative conditions. Metabolic diseases, like obesity and type 2 diabetes mellitus, are related to inadequate dietary patterns and promote variations in the aforementioned signaling pathways in patients with these conditions, which have been linked to alterations in neurological functions and mental health. Thus, maintenance of adequate dietary patterns should be an essential component of any strategy aiming to prevent neurological pathologies derived from systemic metabolic alterations. The present review summarizes current knowledge on the role of nutrition in the modulation of the immune system and its impact in the development of neuroinflammation and neurological disease.

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Resumen Esta investigación aborda dos objetivos: a) examinar la validez de constructo del Cuestionario de Clima Motivacional 3x2 en Educación Física, y b) estudiar las relaciones entre las seis estructuras de clima motivacional y variables consecuentes. En el estudio 1 participaron 192 estudiantes de secundaria (M = 15.57 años). El Análisis Factorial Confirmatorio apoyó el modelo hipotético que, comparado con 10 modelos alternativos, produjo el mejor ajuste a los datos. En el estudio 2 se reexaminó el modelo con estudiantes más jóvenes (N = 299; M = 13.14 años), y se realizaron análisis de regresión para explorar los tipos de clima motivacional como predictores de variables dependientes. Se produjeron evidencias de patrones predictivos diferenciales entre las estructuras de clima basadas en la tarea y el yo.

Abstract This research had two goals: a) examine the construct validity of the 3x2 Motivational Climate Questionnaire for Physical Education, and b) assess the relations among the six structures of motivational climate and relevant consequences. In study 1, 192 secondary students participated (M = 15.57 years). Confirmatory factorial analysis strongly supported the theoretical model. Internal consistency and validity were also satisfactory. The hypothesized model was compared with other 10 alternative models, but the first one showed the best fit to the data. In study 2, the model was re-examined with younger secondary educations students (N = 299; 145 men and 154 women; M = 13.14 years). Multiple regression analyses were conducted to explore the different types of motivational climates as predictors of several variables.

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El propósito de la investigación es examinar el patrón secuencial de un modelo teórico que incluye variables contextuales y disposicionales en el aprendizaje de tres materias de educación secundaria obligatoria: Matemáticas (MT), Lengua Castellana y Literatura (LC) y Educación Física (EF). La muestra estuvo formada por 1108 estudiantes de educación secundaria (374 de MT 364 de LC y 370 de EF). Se constató la validez del modelo mediante un análisis de estructuras de covarianzas, primero de manera independiente en cada asignatura, enfrentándolo, además, con modelos rivales. De los modelos testados el que presenta mejores valores, en los tres casos, es el que se hipotetizó en este estudio, con resultados muy similares en todos los parámetros estimados a los observados en el análisis factorial confirmatorio preliminar. El análisis multistep de invarianza mostró que los modelos presentaban índices de ajuste aceptables. El modelo de estructura de covarianza testado sitúa al alumnado en el eje de todo el proceso y al profesor como un ayudante eficaz, además permite superar la tradicional contraposición entre esfuerzo e interés.

The purpose of this research is to examine the sequential pattern of a theoretical model that includes contextual and dispositional variables in the learning of three Secondary Education subjects: Maths (MT), Spanish Language and Literature (LC) and Physical Education (PE). The sample consisted of 1108 students of Secondary Education (MT = 374, LC = 364, and EF = 370). The validity of the model was verified by analysis of covariance structures, first independently in each subject, also facing it with rival models. The hypothesized model tested in this study yielded the best values in all three cases, with very similar results in all estimated parameters to those observed in the preliminary confirmatory factor analysis. Invariance multistep analysis showed that the models had acceptable fit indices. The tested covariance structure model places the student at the center of the whole process, and the teacher as an effective assistant. It allows us to overcome the traditional opposition between effort and interest.

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Tres fueron los objetivos: a) explorar la influencia que ejercen las metas sociales y de logro (aproximación/evitación) en el esfuerzo y diversión de los estudiantes de Educación Física, b) examinar los perfiles motivacionales de los adolescentes desde un marco holístico y c) estudiar las posibles diferencias entre perfiles en el esfuerzo y la diversión autoinformados. Los participantes fueron 479 estudiantes de secundaria (M = 14.36, DE = 1.58). Las metas de aproximación-maestría y evitación-amistad fueron los únicos predictores positivos del esfuerzo, mientras que las metas de aproximación-maestría y aproximación-amistad fueron los únicos predictores positivos de la diversión. Emergieron tres perfiles de clúster: (a) metas sociales bajas, (b) metas altas y (c) metas sociales altas y de logro moderadas a bajas, siendo los dos últimos más adaptativos. Los estudiantes varones se divirtieron significativamente más que las mujeres.

The present study had three goals: a) to explore the influence of social and achievement goals (approach-avoidance), individually and together, on physical education studentseffort and enjoyment, b) to examine the studentsmotivational profiles from a holistic framework, and c) to study existing profiles differences in studentsself-informed effort and enjoyment. 479 secondary education students participated in the study (M = 14.36, SD = 1.58). Results showed that mastery-approach and friendship-avoidance goals were the only positive predictors of effort, while mastery-approach and friendship-approach goals were the only positive predictors of enjoyment. Three clusters emerged from the sample: (a) low social goals, (b) high social and achievement goals, and (c) high social goals and medium-low achievement goals. The last two clusters were more adaptive. Males showed higher enjoyment scores than females.

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Se examinó el modelo de perfeccionismo 2x2 en la adolescencia, en el contexto de la Educación Física, empleando diversas variables dependientes: autoconcepto, afectividad y satisfacción con la vida. Un total de 331 estudiantes de educación secundaria (58.9 % varones y 41.1 % mujeres; M = 14.29, DE = 1.43) tomó parte en el estudio. Los análisis de regresión jerárquica moderada mostraron que el tipo de Auto-exigencia Puro se asoció a resultados más adaptativos en comparación con el No-perfeccionismo. El de Presión Externa Puro se relacionó con resultados más negativos en comparación con los otros tipos de perfeccionismo. Finalmente, el Perfeccionismo Mixto se asoció a una mejor adaptación psicológica que el tipo Presión Externa Puro, y a una adaptación más débil con respecto al Perfeccionismo Autoexigente Puro.

The 2x2 dispositional perfectionism model in adolescence was assessed in physical education using several dependent variables: self-concept, affectivity and life satisfaction. A total of 331 secondary education students (58.9% males and 41.1% females; M = 14.29, SD = 1.43) agreed to participate. Moderate hierarchical regression analyses showed that the Self-Imposed group was linked to more adaptive results compared to the Non-Perfectionism one. The External Pressure group was linked to more negative results compared to the other types of perfectionism. Finally, the Mixed Perfectionism group was linked to a better psychological adjustment that the External Pressure group and a weaker adaptation than the Self-Imposed group.

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De manera análoga a lo acontecido en la motivación de logro, el marco de aproximación-evitación ha sido incorporado al ámbito de la motivación social. El objetivo del estudio fue validar al castellano el Relationship Goals Questionnaire-Friendship Version de Elliot, Gable y Mapes (2006), en el contexto de la Educación Física. La muestra estuvo formada por un total de 273 adolescentes españoles (143 varones y 130 mujeres) con edades comprendidas entre 12-17 años de edad. El Análisis Factorial Confirmatorio apoyó la estructura bifactorial de las metas de amistad. Se comprobaron las propiedades psicométricas del cuestionario, y los resultados revelaron una validez y consistencia interna satisfactorias. Este instrumento es clave para investigar la motivación desde una perspectiva holística. Se sugieren líneas de investigación futuras.

The approach-avoidance framework has been incorporated into the social motivation context, as it happened before in the achievement goals. The aim of this research work was to validate for Spanish Physical Education contexts the Elliot, Gable and Mapes (2006) Relationship Goals Questionnaire-Friendship Version. The sample consisted of 273 Spanish adolescents (143 males, 130 females) 12-17 years old. Confirmatory Factor Analysis supported the two-factor structure of the friendship goals. Psychometric properties of the questionnaire were tested, and results showed acceptable validity and internal consistency. This instrument is a key element to investigate motivation from a holistic point of view. Future lines of research are suggested.

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