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AIMS: To examine the association between alcohol prices and age of initiation of alcohol use and the association between age of alcohol use initiation and heavy episodic drinking (HED) among adolescents in Chile. DESIGN: We estimated discrete-time hazard models using retrospective data and generalized ordered probit models with repeated cross-sectional data. SETTING: Chile. PARTICIPANTS: A total of 248 336 urban youth who attended secondary school between 2003 and 2015 and self-reported ever having tried alcohol. MEASUREMENTS: We created drinking histories from self-reported responses of age, age of alcohol use initiation and year/month of survey. From two self-reported responses, we created a four-category ordinal variable of heavy episodic drinking: none, one to two, three to nine and more than 10 HED episodes in the past 30 days. We constructed a monthly measure of real alcohol prices using the all-items and alcohol component of the Consumer Price Index compiled by Chile's statistical agency, the Instituto Nacional de Estadísticas. FINDINGS: First, we found negative, statistically significant and policy-meaningful associations between alcohol prices and the age of alcohol use initiation. The estimated price elasticity of delay was -0.99 [95% confidence interval (CI) = -1.30, -0.69]. A 10% increase in real alcohol prices was associated with delayed alcohol use initiation of approximately 6.6 months. Secondly, we found that youth who had started drinking alcohol at a later age had statistically significant and substantially lower probabilities of having reported HED during the previous month. For example, youth who started drinking at 16 were 4.9 (95% CI = 4.2-5.6) percentage points more likely to have reported no HED in the previous month relative to youth who started drinking alcohol when aged 12 years or younger. CONCLUSIONS: Increasing the price of alcohol products may delay alcohol initiation among young people in Chile. Chilean youth who start drinking alcohol later may engage in less harmful drinking practices.
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Consumo de Bebidas Alcoólicas , Alcoolismo , Adolescente , Consumo de Bebidas Alcoólicas/epidemiologia , Chile/epidemiologia , Estudos Transversais , Humanos , Estudos RetrospectivosRESUMO
IMPORTANCE: Tobacco smoking is still responsible for more than 6 million preventable deaths annually, most of which occur in low- and middle-income countries. South American countries, Chile in particular, endure some of the highest cigarette smoking prevalence rates globally. Despite the lack of any meaningful increases in cigarette taxes (the most effective tobacco control measure) between 1999 and 2014, cigarette prices in Chile increased sharply almost entirely driven by British American Tobacco (BAT). OBJECTIVE: To examine the associations between cigarette prices and nonprice tobacco control policies targeted at youth introduced in 2006 (Law 20105) and smoking onset among Chilean youths. DESIGN, SETTING, AND PARTICIPANTS: This study used data from 8 waves of a large national school survey of urban communities in Chile conducted between October and December in 2001, 2003, 2015, 2007, 2009, 2011, 2013, and 2015 and discrete-time hazard models. Data analysis was performed from May 2017 to January 2019. EXPOSURES: Prices, advertising, and retail restrictions. MAIN OUTCOMES AND MEASURES: Smoking onset (the transition between never smoking and smoking) in youth. RESULTS: In this study of 181â¯624 survey respondents in 8751 Chilean secondary schools, higher prices (own-price elasticity [percentage change in quantity demanded in response to a 1% change in price], -0.40; 95% CI, -0.45 to -0.36) and the tobacco control policies enacted in 2006 (hazard ratio, 0.83; 95% CI, 0.81-0.85) were associated with lower hazards of starting smoking. The study found that an increase in real prices of 58.6% and the introduction of Law 20105 were associated with similar lower hazards of starting smoking (hazard ratio, 0.83; 95% CI, 0.81-0.85); in comparison, between 1999 and 2017, inflation-adjusted cigarette prices increased by 206%. CONCLUSIONS AND RELEVANCE: The findings suggest that higher prices initiated by BAT and the tobacco control policies enacted by the Ministry of Health in 2006 were associated with lower hazards of starting smoking in Chilean youth. Large cigarette tax increases may be a strategy that can be used to help reduce smoking among youths in Chile.
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BACKGROUND: In Uruguay, real tobacco taxes increased significantly during 2005-2010 and 2014-2017 and decreased during 2010-2014. The effects of these tax changes on illegal and legal cigarette usage differed significantly when we compared cities in the middle and south of the country with cities on the border. OBJECTIVE: This paper analyses whether supply side factors such as geographical location, distribution networks and the effectiveness of tobacco control play a significant role in sales and use of illegal cigarettes when tobacco taxes change, particularly given the price gap between legal and lower-priced illegal cigarettes. METHODS: Using the International Tobacco Control Evaluation Project Uruguay Survey data (2008, 2010, 2012 and 2014), choices among illegal, legal and roll-your-own cigarettes are estimated as a function of smokers' geographical location, an indicator of illegal cigarette supply, and controlling for socioeconomic and demographic variables. Smoking behaviours in Montevideo, Durazno and Maldonado were compared with those in two border cities, Salto and Rivera, where illegal cigarette prevalence may differ. FINDINGS: An increase in taxes on manufactured legal and roll-your-own cigarettes increased the odds that smokers in cities near the borders and women switched down to illegal cigarettes. City geographical location, controls effectiveness and distribution networks may play a significant role in accessibility of illegal cigarettes. To improve the effectiveness of increased taxes and prices in reducing smoking, policy-makers may consider specific policies intended to reduce access to illegal cigarettes, such as ratification and effective implementation of the Protocol to Eliminate Illicit Trade in Tobacco Products of WHO.
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Comércio/tendências , Tráfico de Drogas/estatística & dados numéricos , Impostos/tendências , Produtos do Tabaco/economia , Produtos do Tabaco/provisão & distribuição , Adolescente , Adulto , Idoso , Comércio/estatística & dados numéricos , Feminino , Geografia , Humanos , Masculino , Pessoa de Meia-Idade , Modelos Econômicos , Política Pública , Fumar/epidemiologia , Fatores Socioeconômicos , Impostos/estatística & dados numéricos , Produtos do Tabaco/legislação & jurisprudência , Uruguai/epidemiologia , Adulto JovemRESUMO
BACKGROUND: The obesity epidemic is spreading rapidly in Guatemala, a low/middle income country still struggling with undernutrition. Sugar sweetened beverages (SSBs) consumption is strongly associated with overweight, obesity, and non-communicable diseases. In Guatemala, SSBs are readily available and consumption is high, particularly among adolescents. SSB taxes have been proposed as a cost-effective way to reduce consumption and generate revenues for public health, as has been demonstrated in several countries around the world. OBJECTIVE: To estimate the price, expenditure, quality, and cross-price elasticity of beverage demand using household survey data. METHOD: We conducted a secondary analysis on the 2014 Guatemala Living Conditions National Survey that includes national representative household data on expenditure. Own price, expenditure, quality, and cross-price elasticities of milk, soft drinks, packaged juices, and bottled water were estimated using Deaton's Almost Ideal Demand System (AIDS), controlling for goods' quality. Household characteristics and beverage expenditure are summarized for urban and rural locations using descriptive statistics. RESULTS: Positive expenditure on soft drinks was highest (50.9% of households). Positive expenditure on bottled water was next for urban households (43.8%) and lowest for rural households (10.8%). Own-price elasticities for all beverages are negative and statistically significant. Own-price elasticity of soft drinks is -1.39, suggesting that with a 10% increase in price, consumption would decrease by 13.9%. Expenditure elasticity for soft drinks (0.99) suggests that a 10% household expenditure increase would result in a 9.9% increase in demand. Milk (0.07) and soft drinks (0.07) have positive quality elasticity implying that, as household total expenditure increases, the quality of these beverages, measured by their unit values, also increases. CONCLUSION: Soft drink demand is highly sensitive to changes in prices, suggesting that SSB taxes could significantly reduce consumption, which, in turn, could contribute to curbing the overweight/obesity epidemic.
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Bebidas/economia , Comércio/economia , Açúcares/economia , Edulcorantes/economia , Criança , Feminino , Guatemala , Humanos , MasculinoRESUMO
OBJECTIVE:: To estimate cigarette demand and to simulate a tax policy targeted to reduce tobacco consumption. MATERIALS AND METHODS:: Demand was estimated using a vector error correction model. Simulation exercises present the impact of a tax increase on consumption and revenues. RESULTS:: Changes in real income and the real price of cigarettes affect the demand for cigarettes in Argentina. The long term price elasticity is 0.279 (a 10% increase in real prices reduces cigarette consumption by 2.79% per quarter) and the long term income elasticity is 0.411 (a 10% increase in real income raises consumption by 4.11% per quarter). Even in a conservative scenario, simulations show that increasing the price of cigarettes by 100% using excise taxes would maximize revenues and reduce cigarette consumption. CONCLUSION:: There is sufficient room to increase taxes, reducing cigarette consumption, while still increasing tax revenues.
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Comércio/economia , Governo , Impostos/economia , Produtos do Tabaco/economia , Produtos do Tabaco/provisão & distribuição , Argentina , HumanosRESUMO
Abstract: Objective: To estimate cigarette demand and to simulate a tax policy targeted to reduce tobacco consumption. Materials and methods: Demand was estimated using a vector error correction model. Simulation exercises present the impact of a tax increase on consumption and revenues. Results: Changes in real income and the real price of cigarettes affect the demand for cigarettes in Argentina. The long term price elasticity is 0.279 (a 10% increase in real prices reduces cigarette consumption by 2.79% per quarter) and the long term income elasticity is 0.411 (a 10% increase in real income raises consumption by 4.11% per quarter). Even in a conservative scenario, simulations show that increasing the price of cigarettes by 100% using excise taxes would maximize revenues and reduce cigarette consumption. Conclusion: There is sufficient room to increase taxes, reducing cigarette consumption, while still increasing tax revenues.
Resumen: Objetivo: Estimar la demanda de cigarrillos y simular una política fiscal dirigida a reducir el consumo de tabaco. Material y métodos: Se estima la demanda mediante el modelo de corrección de errores. Se simula el impacto del incremento de los impuestos en el consumo y la recaudación. Resultados: Las variaciones en ingreso y precio real de los cigarrillos afectan la demanda. La elasticidad precio de la demanda de largo plazo es de 0.279 (10% de aumento en los precios reales reduce el consumo de cigarrillos en 2.79% en un trimestre) y la elasticidad ingreso de largo plazo es 0.411 (10% de aumento en el ingreso real aumenta el consumo en 4.11% en un trimestre). Aun en un escenario conservador, un incremento del precio de los cigarrillos de 100% vía impuestos maximizaría la recaudación y reduciría el consumo de cigarrillos. Conclusión: Es posible incrementar los impuestos reduciendo el consumo de cigarrillos e incrementando la recaudación.
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Humanos , Impostos/economia , Comércio/economia , Produtos do Tabaco/economia , Produtos do Tabaco/provisão & distribuição , Governo , ArgentinaRESUMO
Examinamos la repercusión de los precios del tabaco o los impuestos sobre el consumo de tabaco en países de América Latina y el Caribe. Efectuamos búsquedas en MEDLINE, EconLit, LILACS, bibliografía inédita, seis revistas especializadas y referencias de revisiones. Calculamos las elasticidades combinadas de los precios usando modelos de efectos aleatorios. En los 32 estudios que examinamos se observó que los precios de los cigarrillos tienen un efecto negativo y estadísticamente significativo sobre el consumo. Un cambio en el precio está asociado con un cambio menos que proporcional en la magnitud de la cantidad demandada de cigarrillos. En la mayoría de los países latinoamericanos, la elasticidad-precio para los cigarrillos probablemente sea inferior a –0,5 (elasticidades combinadas, a corto plazo: –0,31; intervalo de confianza de 95% = –0,39 a –0,24; a largo plazo: –0,43; IC de 95% = –0,51 a –0,35). Los aumentos de impuestos reducen eficazmente el consumo de cigarrillos. La falta de estudios que usen datos de hogares o de individuos limita la pertinencia de las políticas de investigación.
We examined the impact of tobacco prices or taxes on tobacco use in Latin America and Caribbean countries. We searched MEDLINE, EconLit, LILACS, unpublished literature, 6 specialty journals, and reviewed references. We calculated pooled price elasticities using random-effects models. The 32 studies we examined found that cigarette prices have a negative and statistically significant effect on cigarette consumption. A change in price is associated with a less than proportional change in the quantity of cigarettes demanded. In most Latin American countries, own-price elasticity for cigarettes is likely below –0.5 (pooled elasticities, shortrun: –0.31; 95% confidence interval = –0.39, –0.24; longrun: –0.43; 95% CI = –0.51, –0.35). Tax increases effectively reduce cigarette use. Lack of studies using household- or individual-level data limits research’s policy relevance.
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Uso de Tabaco , Comercialização de Produtos Derivados do Tabaco , Tributação de Produtos Derivados do TabacoRESUMO
RESUMEN Examinamos la repercusión de los precios del tabaco o los impuestos sobre el consumo de tabaco en países de América Latina y el Caribe. Efectuamos búsquedas en MEDLINE, EconLit, LILACS, bibliografía inédita, seis revistas especializadas y referencias de revisiones. Calculamos las elasticidades combinadas de los precios usando modelos de efectos aleatorios. En los 32 estudios que examinamos se observó que los precios de los cigarrillos tienen un efecto negativo y estadísticamente significativo sobre el consumo. Un cambio en el precio está asociado con un cambio menos que proporcional en la magnitud de la cantidad demandada de cigarrillos. En la mayoría de los países latinoamericanos, la elasticidad-precio para los cigarrillos probablemente sea inferior a –0,5 (elasticidades combinadas, a corto plazo: –0,31; intervalo de confianza de 95% = –0,39 a –0,24; a largo plazo: –0,43; IC de 95% = –0,51 a –0,35). Los aumentos de impuestos reducen eficazmente el consumo de cigarrillos. La falta de estudios que usen datos de hogares o de individuos limita la pertinencia de las políticas de investigación.
ABSTRACT We examined the impact of tobacco prices or taxes on tobacco use in Latin America and Caribbean countries. We searched MEDLINE, EconLit, LILACS, unpublished literature, 6 specialty journals, and reviewed references. We calculated pooled price elasticities using random-effects models. The 32 studies we examined found that cigarette prices have a negative and statistically significant effect on cigarette consumption. A change in price is associated with a less than proportional change in the quantity of cigarettes demanded. In most Latin American countries, own-price elasticity for cigarettes is likely below –0.5 (pooled elasticities, shortrun: –0.31; 95% confidence interval = –0.39, –0.24; longrun: –0.43; 95% CI = –0.51, –0.35). Tax increases effectively reduce cigarette use. Lack of studies using household- or individual-level data limits research’s policy relevance.
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Impostos/economia , Indústria do Tabaco/economia , Comercialização de Produtos Derivados do TabacoRESUMO
An estimated 11.6% of the world cigarette market is illicit, representing more than 650 billion cigarettes a year and $40.5 billion in lost revenue. Illicit tobacco trade refers to any practice related to distributing, selling, or buying tobacco products that is prohibited by law, including tax evasion (sale of tobacco products without payment of applicable taxes), counterfeiting, disguising the origin of products, and smuggling. Illicit trade undermines tobacco prevention and control initiatives by increasing the accessibility and affordability of tobacco products, and reduces government tax revenue streams. The World Health Organization (WHO) Protocol to Eliminate Illicit Trade in Tobacco Products, signed by 54 countries, provides tools for addressing illicit trade through a package of regulatory and governing principles. As of May 2015, only eight countries had ratified or acceded to the illicit trade protocol, with an additional 32 needed for it to become international law (i.e., legally binding). Data from multiple international sources were analyzed to evaluate the 10 most commonly used approaches for addressing illicit trade and to summarize differences in implementation across select countries and the European Union (EU). Although the WHO illicit trade protocol defines shared global standards for addressing illicit trade, countries are guided by their own legal and enforcement frameworks, leading to a diversity of approaches employed across countries. Continued adoption of the methods outlined in the WHO illicit trade protocol might improve the global capacity to reduce illicit trade in tobacco products.
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Comércio/legislação & jurisprudência , Aplicação da Lei/métodos , Produtos do Tabaco , Brasil , Canadá , União Europeia , Educação em Saúde , Humanos , Hungria , Relações Interinstitucionais , Itália , Licenciamento , Malásia , Registros , Romênia , Espanha , Impostos , Indústria do Tabaco , Produtos do Tabaco/economia , Turquia , Reino Unido , Organização Mundial da SaúdeRESUMO
BACKGROUND: Little research has been done to examine whether smokers switch to illegal or roll-your-own (RYO) cigarettes in response to a change in their relative price. OBJECTIVE: This paper explores how relative prices between three cigarette forms (manufactured legal, manufactured illegal and RYO cigarettes) are associated with the choice of one form over another after controlling for covariates, including sociodemographic characteristics, smokers' exposure to antismoking messaging, health warning labels and tobacco marketing. METHODS: Generalised estimating equations were employed to analyse the association between the price ratio of two different cigarette forms and the usage of one form over the other. FINDINGS: A 10% increase in the relative price ratio of legal to RYO cigarettes is associated with a 4.6% increase in the probability of consuming RYO cigarettes over manufactured legal cigarettes (p≤0.05). In addition, more exposure to antismoking messaging is associated with a lower odds of choosing RYO cigarettes over manufactured legal cigarettes (p≤0.05). Non-significant associations exist between the manufactured illegal to legal cigarette price ratios and choosing manufactured illegal cigarettes, suggesting that smokers do not switch to manufactured illegal cigarettes as prices of legal ones increase. However, these non-significant findings may be due to lack of variation in the price ratio measures. To improve the effectiveness of increased taxes and prices in reducing smoking, policymakers need to narrow price variability in the tobacco market. Moreover, increasing antismoking messaging reduces tax avoidance in the form of switching to cheaper RYO cigarettes in Uruguay.
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Comércio/economia , Fumar/economia , Impostos/economia , Produtos do Tabaco/economia , Adolescente , Adulto , Comércio/legislação & jurisprudência , Feminino , Humanos , Estudos Longitudinais , Masculino , Marketing/métodos , Pessoa de Meia-Idade , Rotulagem de Produtos/legislação & jurisprudência , Prevenção do Hábito de Fumar , Fatores Socioeconômicos , Inquéritos e Questionários , Uruguai , Adulto JovemRESUMO
INTRODUCTION: Using the Global Adult Tobacco Surveys from 14 primarily low- and middle-income countries, we describe the association between the probability of being a recent quitter and a number of demographic and policy-relevant factors such as exposure to warning labels, work-site smoking bans, antismoking media messaging, tobacco marketing, and current cigarette and bidi prices. METHODS: Logistic regressions were used to examine the potential correlates of recent quitting and recent quit attempts. RESULTS: After accounting for country-specific attributes in pooled analyses, we found that higher rates of exposure to work-site smoking bans are associated with higher odds of being a quitter (odds ratio [OR] with 95% confidence interval [CI] = 1.13 [1.04, 1.22]). Exposure to antismoking media messaging (OR with 95% CI = 1.08 [1.00, 1.17]), work-site smoking bans (OR with 95% CI = 1.11 [0.99, 1.26]), and warning labels (OR with 95% CI = 1.03 [1.01, 1.05]); cigarette prices (OR with 95% CI = 1.01 [1.00, 1.02]), and bidi prices (OR with 95% CI =1.17 [1.11, 1.22]) are factors associated with higher odds of recent quit attempts in the pooled analysis. These effects vary by country. Exposure to warning labels is found to be associated with greater likelihood of recent quitting in Egypt (OR with 95% CI = 3.20 [1.53, 6.68]), and the positive association between exposure to work-site smoking bans and quitting is particularly strong for Southeast Asia (OR with 95% CI = 1.20 [1.06, 1.35]) and Asia Pacific countries (OR with 95% CI = 1.85 [0.93, 3.68]). Additionally, exposure to tobacco industry marketing is significantly associated with smaller odds of quitting in Asia Pacific (OR with 95% CI = 0.83 [0.79, 0.87]) and Latin American countries (OR with 95% CI = 0.78 [0.74, 0.82]). CONCLUSIONS: Although our results vary by country, they generally suggest that greater exposure to tobacco control polices is significantly associated with quitting.
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Modelos Estatísticos , Abandono do Hábito de Fumar/métodos , Prevenção do Hábito de Fumar , Produtos do Tabaco/estatística & dados numéricos , Adolescente , Adulto , Idoso , Idoso de 80 Anos ou mais , Ásia/epidemiologia , Comércio , Estudos Transversais , Países em Desenvolvimento , Egito/epidemiologia , Europa Oriental/epidemiologia , Feminino , Humanos , Masculino , Pessoa de Meia-Idade , Prevalência , Política Antifumo , Fumar/economia , Fumar/epidemiologia , Fumar/legislação & jurisprudência , Abandono do Hábito de Fumar/economia , Abandono do Hábito de Fumar/legislação & jurisprudência , Classe Social , América do Sul/epidemiologia , Local de Trabalho , Adulto JovemRESUMO
INTRODUCTION: As stated in Article 6 of Framework Convention on Tobacco Control (FCTC), increasing tobacco prices through higher taxes is one of the most effective interventions to reduce tobacco use and to encourage smokers to quit. The potential for tax increases on tobacco products in Central America is ample. We aim to synthesize the current tobacco taxes situation and highlight research needs to strengthen taxation. BACKGROUND: In May 2012, a workshop was carried out with representatives from each Central American country to analyze the tobacco tax situation in each country and to identify key research gaps with experts in the field. DISCUSSION: Tobacco taxes in Central America fall far short of the levels recommended by FCTC. Moreover, the legal framework is complex and creates barriers for higher taxes that require further research and political will. Top research priorities are an in-depth analysis of tobacco tax legislation, impact of tax and price policies, analysis of costs associated to health care of tobacco-related diseases and lost productivity, and the feasibility of approaches to increasing tobacco taxes in certain contexts. An additional area of research is the interrelationship between human rights and tobacco control. CONCLUSION: Central American countries would benefit from increasing excise taxes on tobacco products. The lack of available data and research to counteract tobacco industry arguments are significant obstacles. Active leadership of civil society in support of the partnership of chronic disease interventions is vital in order to obtain tax increases on tobacco products.
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Abandono do Hábito de Fumar/métodos , Prevenção do Hábito de Fumar , Impostos , Produtos do Tabaco/estatística & dados numéricos , América Central/epidemiologia , Comércio/economia , Regulamentação Governamental , Política de Saúde , Promoção da Saúde , Humanos , Prevalência , Pesquisa , Fumar/economia , Fumar/epidemiologia , Fumar/legislação & jurisprudência , Abandono do Hábito de Fumar/legislação & jurisprudência , Impostos/legislação & jurisprudência , Indústria do Tabaco/legislação & jurisprudência , Produtos do Tabaco/economiaRESUMO
INTRODUCTION: The importance of tobacco tax structure in determining the relative prices of different tobacco products and brands has become increasingly recognized. The structuring of tobacco tax across products and brands within a country can impact the variability of prices within a country, shaping consumption and influencing tobacco users' incentives to switch down to cheaper alternatives in response to tax and price increases. METHODS: Brand-specific data on the average prices paid for the top 5 cigarette brands in 13 countries were obtained from the Global Adult Tobacco Survey, and for the United States, data were obtained from the National Adult Tobacco Survey. The variability of cigarette prices paid across brands was analyzed in the context of each country's tobacco tax structure. RESULTS: Countries with simpler cigarette tax structures, particularly those that emphasize specific taxes and do not involve tier-based taxes, exhibit less variability in the prices smokers pay for cigarettes across brands. CONCLUSIONS: Increases in cigarette taxes in countries with simpler tax structures will be more effective in reducing cigarette smoking and its health and economic consequences than comparable tax increases in countries where tax structures are more complicated and there are greater opportunities for switching to cheaper brands in order to avoid a tax increase.
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Comércio/estatística & dados numéricos , Abandono do Hábito de Fumar/economia , Fumar , Impostos , Produtos do Tabaco/economia , Adolescente , Adulto , Idoso de 80 Anos ou mais , Ásia/epidemiologia , Custos e Análise de Custo , Coleta de Dados , Egito/epidemiologia , Europa Oriental/epidemiologia , Feminino , Humanos , Masculino , Pessoa de Meia-Idade , Prevalência , Fumar/economia , Fumar/epidemiologia , Fumar/legislação & jurisprudência , Prevenção do Hábito de Fumar , América do Sul/epidemiologia , Impostos/economia , Estados Unidos/epidemiologia , Adulto JovemRESUMO
BACKGROUND: Recent tax increases in Mexico differed in structure and provided an opportunity to better understand tobacco industry pricing strategies, as well as smokers' responses to any resulting price changes. OBJECTIVES: To assess if taxes were passed onto consumers of different cigarette brands, the extent of brand switching and predictors of preference for cheaper national brands. METHODS: Using data from three waves of the Mexican administration of the International Tobacco Control Survey, we analysed self-reported brand and price paid at last cigarette purchase. Generalised estimating equations were used to determine predictors of price and preference for national brands. RESULTS: The average price of premium/international brands increased each year from 2008 to 2011; however, the price for discount/national brands increased only from 2010 to 2011. The percentage of smokers who smoked national brands remained stable between 2008 and 2010 but dropped in 2011. Factors related to smoking national brands as opposed to international brands included being male and having relatively older age, lower education, lower income and higher consumption. CONCLUSIONS: Tobacco industry pricing strategies in the wake of ad valorem taxes implemented in Mexico prior to 2011 had the impact of segmenting the market into discount national brands and premium international brands. The specific tax increase implemented in 2011 reduced the price gap between these two segments by raising the price of the national brands relative to the international brands. Evidence for trading up was found after the 2011 tax increase. These results provide further evidence for the relevance of tax policy as a tobacco control strategy; in particular, they illustrate the importance of how specific rather than ad valorem taxes can reduce the potential for downward brand switching in the face of decreasing cigarette affordability.
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Comércio/economia , Fumar/economia , Impostos/economia , Produtos do Tabaco/economia , Adolescente , Adulto , Fatores Etários , Comportamento de Escolha , Comportamento do Consumidor , Coleta de Dados , Escolaridade , Feminino , Humanos , Renda , Estudos Longitudinais , Masculino , México , Pessoa de Meia-Idade , Fumar/epidemiologia , Adulto JovemRESUMO
INTRODUCTION: We estimated the impact of cigarette prices on youth smoking in 38 countries with the Global Youth Tobacco Survey. METHODS: We used a 2-part model of cigarette demand. In the first part, we estimated the impact of prices on the decision to smoke. Conditional on smoking, we then estimated the effect of price on the number of cigarettes smoked. We employed 2-way fixed effects to address country-level time-invariant heterogeneity and controlled for an array of local-level variables to address local-level heterogeneity. RESULTS: The estimated total price elasticity is -1.5 for a sample that contains both high-income and low- and middle-income countries. Constraining the sample to only low- and middle-income countries, we found a total price elasticity of -2.2, suggesting that smoking among youths in low-income countries is more responsive to cigarette price changes. CONCLUSION: Cigarette price increases are highly effective in reducing smoking prevalence and consumption among youths globally and particularly among youths in low- and middle-income countries.
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Abandono do Hábito de Fumar/estatística & dados numéricos , Fumar/economia , Produtos do Tabaco/estatística & dados numéricos , Adolescente , África/epidemiologia , América/epidemiologia , Ásia/epidemiologia , Criança , Comércio/economia , Estudos Transversais , Coleta de Dados , Países em Desenvolvimento , Europa (Continente)/epidemiologia , Feminino , Humanos , Masculino , Prevalência , Fumar/epidemiologia , Abandono do Hábito de Fumar/economia , Prevenção do Hábito de Fumar , Classe Social , América do Sul/epidemiologia , Produtos do Tabaco/economia , Adulto JovemRESUMO
OBJECTIVE: To assess the impact of a 2007 cigarette tax increase from 110% to 140% of the price to the retailer on cigarette price and consumption among Mexican smokers, including efforts to offset price increases. METHODS: Data were analysed from the 2006 and 2007 administrations of the International Tobacco Control (ITC) Policy Evaluation Survey in Mexico, which is a population-based cohort of adult smokers. Self-reported price of last cigarette purchase, place of last purchase, preferred brand, daily consumption and quit behaviour were assessed at baseline and follow-up. RESULTS: Self-reported cigarette prices increased by 12.7% after the tax increase, with prices for international brands increasing more than for national brands (13.5% vs 8.7%, respectively). Although the tax increases were not fully passed onto consumers particularly on national brands, no evidence was found for smokers changing behaviour to offset price increases. Consistent declines in consumption across groups defined by sociodemographic and smoking-related psychosocial variables suggest a relatively uniform impact of the tax increase across subpopulations. However, decreased consumption appeared limited to people who smoked relatively more cigarettes a day (>5 cigarettes/day). Average daily consumption among lighter smokers did not significantly decline. A total of 13% (n=98) of the sample reported being quit for a month or more at follow-up. In multivariate models, lighter smokers were more likely than heavier smokers to be quit. CONCLUSIONS: Results suggest that the 2007 tax increase was passed on to consumers, whose consumption generally declined. Since no other tobacco control policies or programmes were implemented during the period analysed, the tax increase appears likely to have decreased consumption.
Assuntos
Comércio/estatística & dados numéricos , Nicotiana , Abandono do Hábito de Fumar/economia , Fumar/economia , Impostos , Indústria do Tabaco , Adolescente , Adulto , Estudos de Coortes , Comércio/legislação & jurisprudência , Coleta de Dados , Feminino , Humanos , Masculino , México/epidemiologia , Modelos Estatísticos , Prevalência , Autorrelato , Fumar/epidemiologia , Fumar/legislação & jurisprudência , Abandono do Hábito de Fumar/legislação & jurisprudência , Fatores Socioeconômicos , Impostos/legislação & jurisprudência , Indústria do Tabaco/economia , Indústria do Tabaco/legislação & jurisprudência , Indústria do Tabaco/estatística & dados numéricosRESUMO
OBJECTIVE: The Framework Convention on Tobacco Control (FCTC) aims to coordinate tobacco control policies around the world that reduce tobacco consumption. The FCTC's recommended policies are likely to be effective in low- and middle-income countries. Nevertheless, policy evaluation studies are needed to determine policy impact and potential synergies across policies. MATERIAL AND METHODS: The International Tobacco Control Policy Evaluation Project (ITC) is an international collaboration to assess the psychosocial and behavioral impact of the FCTC's policies among adult smokers in nine countries. The ITC evaluation framework utilizes multiple country controls, a longitudinal design, and a theory-driven conceptual model to test hypotheses about the anticipated effects of given policies. RESULTS: ITC Project results generally confirm previous studies that form the evidence base for FCTC policy recommendations, in particular: the use of graphic warning labels; banning of "light" and "mild" descriptors; smoking bans; increasing tax and price; banning advertising; and using new cigarette product testing methods. CONCLUSIONS: Initial findings from the ITC Project suggest that Latin American countries could use similar methods to monitor and evaluate their own tobacco control policies while contributing to the evidence base for policy interventions in other countries.
Assuntos
Publicidade/legislação & jurisprudência , Política de Saúde , Prevenção do Hábito de Fumar , Indústria do Tabaco/legislação & jurisprudência , Adolescente , Adulto , Educação em Saúde , Humanos , Cooperação Internacional , América Latina , Saúde Pública , Fumar/legislação & jurisprudênciaRESUMO
OBJETIVO: El Convenio Marco para el Control del Tabaco (CMCT) pretende coordinar las políticas mundiales que reducen el consumo de tabaco. Con toda probabilidad, estas medidas tendrán efectos en países de ingresos medianos y bajos; no obstante, se requieren estudios de evaluación para determinar sus consecuencias y las posibles sinergias entre las directrices. MATERIAL Y MÉTODOS: El Proyecto Internacional de Evaluación de Políticas para el Control del Tabaco (ITC) es una colaboración internacional para evaluar el efecto psicosocial y conductual que causan las políticas promovidas por el CMCT en adultos fumadores de nueve países. El marco de evaluación ITC utiliza diversos controles de país, con un diseño longitudinal y un modelo conceptual basado en teorías para probar las hipótesis sobre los efectos anticipados de determinadas políticas. RESULTADOS: Los resultados del análisis de datos confirman por lo general los hallazgos anteriores de investigaciones basadas en las recomendaciones del CMCT, y se refieren a las siguientes políticas: promover etiquetas de advertencia con imágenes gráficas, prohibir el uso de las descripciones "ligero" y "suave", establecer ambientes libres de humo de tabaco, incrementar los impuestos, prohibir la publicidad del cigarro e implementar nuevos métodos para evaluar los componentes del cigarro. CONCLUSIONES: Los hallazgos iniciales sugieren que los países latinoamericanos podrían aplicar métodos similares para vigilar y evaluar sus propias directrices, así como fortalecer el cuerpo de conocimiento sobre políticas en otros países.