RESUMO
Tau is a protein that is highly enriched in neurons and was originally defined by its ability to bind and stabilize microtubules. However, it is now becoming evident that the functions of tau extend beyond its ability to modulate microtubule dynamics. Tau plays a role in mediating axonal transport, synaptic structure and function, and neuronal signaling pathways. Although tau plays important physiological roles in neurons, its involvement in neurodegenerative diseases, and most prominently in the pathogenesis of Alzheimer disease (AD), has directed the majority of tau studies. However, a thorough knowledge of the physiological functions of tau and its post-translational modifications under normal conditions are necessary to provide the foundation for understanding its role in pathological settings. In this review, we will focus on human tau, summarizing tau structure and organization, as well as its posttranslational modifications associated with physiological processes. We will highlight possible mechanisms involved in mediating the turnover of tau and finally discuss newly elucidated tau functions in a physiological context.
Assuntos
Encéfalo , Proteínas tau/fisiologia , Humanos , Proteínas tau/químicaRESUMO
Alzheimer's disease (AD) is characterized by the presence of aggregates of tau protein. Tau truncated by caspase-3 (D421) or tau hyperphosphorylated at Ser396/S404 might play a role in the pathogenesis of AD. Mitochondria are dynamic organelles that modify their size and function through mitochondrial dynamics. Recent studies have shown that alterations of mitochondrial dynamics affect synaptic communication. Therefore, we studied the effects of pathological forms of tau on the regulation of mitochondrial dynamics. We used primary cortical neurons from tau(-/-) knockout mice and immortalized cortical neurons (CN1.4) that were transfected with plasmids containing green fluorescent protein (GFP) or GFP with different tau forms: full-length (GFP-T4), truncated (GFP-T4C3), pseudophosphorylated (GFP-T42EC), or both truncated and pseudophosphorylated modifications of tau (GFP-T4C3-2EC). Cells expressing truncated tau showed fragmented mitochondria compared to cells that expressed full-length tau. These findings were corroborated using primary neurons from tau(-/-) knockout mice that expressed the truncated and both truncated and pseudophosphorylated forms of tau. Interestingly, mitochondrial fragmentation was accompanied by a significant reduction in levels of optic atrophy protein 1 (Opa1) in cells expressing the truncated form of tau. In addition, treatment with low concentrations of amyloid-beta (Aß) significantly reduced mitochondrial membrane potential, cell viability, and mitochondrial length in cortical cells and primary neurons from tau(-/-) mice that express truncated tau. These results indicate that the presence of tau pathology impairs mitochondrial dynamics by reducing Opa1 levels, an event that could lead to mitochondrial impairment observed in AD.
Assuntos
Doença de Alzheimer/metabolismo , Mitocôndrias/metabolismo , Dinâmica Mitocondrial/fisiologia , Neurônios/metabolismo , Proteínas tau/metabolismo , Animais , Encéfalo/metabolismo , Proteínas de Fluorescência Verde/metabolismo , Potencial da Membrana Mitocondrial/fisiologia , Camundongos , Camundongos Knockout , Fosforilação , Proteínas tau/genéticaRESUMO
Alzheimer's disease (AD) is a neurodegenerative disease that affects millions of people worldwide. Currently, there is no effective treatment for AD, which indicates the necessity to understand the pathogenic mechanism of this disorder. Extracellular aggregates of amyloid precursor protein (APP), called Aß peptide and neurofibrillary tangles (NFTs), formed by tau protein in the hyperphosphorylated form are considered the hallmarks of AD. Accumulative evidence suggests that tau pathology and Aß affect neuronal cells compromising energy supply, antioxidant response, and synaptic activity. In this context, it has been showed that mitochondrial function could be affected by the presence of tau pathology and Aß in AD. Mitochondria are essential for brain cells function and the improvement of mitochondrial activity contributes to preventing neurodegeneration. Several reports have suggested that mitochondria could be affected in terms of morphology, bioenergetics, and transport in AD. These defects affect mitochondrial health, which later will contribute to the pathogenesis of AD. In this review, we will discuss evidence that supports the importance of mitochondrial injury in the pathogenesis of AD and how studying these mechanisms could lead us to suggest new targets for diagnostic and therapeutic intervention against neurodegeneration.
Assuntos
Doença de Alzheimer/patologia , Mitocôndrias/metabolismo , Doença de Alzheimer/metabolismo , Peptídeos beta-Amiloides/metabolismo , Animais , Axônios/metabolismo , Encéfalo/metabolismo , Humanos , Dinâmica Mitocondrial , Proteínas tau/metabolismoRESUMO
Neuronal processes (neurites and axons) have an important role in brain cells communication and, generally, they are damaged in neurodegenerative diseases. Recent evidence has showed that the activation of PPARγ pathway promoted neuronal differentiation and axon polarity. In addition, activation of PPARγ using thiazolidinediones (TZDs) prevented neurodegeneration by reducing neuronal death, improving mitochondrial function, and decreasing neuroinflammation in neuropathic pain. In this review, we will discuss important evidence that supports a possible role of PPARγ in neuronal development, improvement of neuronal health, and pain signaling. Therefore, activation of PPARγ is a potential target with therapeutic applications against neurodegenerative disorders, brain injury, and pain regulation.