RESUMO

Most national GHG inventories estimating direct N2 O emissions from managed soils rely on a default Tier 1 emission factor (EF1 ) amounting to 1% of nitrogen inputs. Recent research has, however, demonstrated the potential for refining the EF1 considering variables that are readily available at national scales. Building on existing reviews, we produced a large dataset (n = 848) enriched in dry and low latitude tropical climate observations as compared to former global efforts and disaggregated the EF1 according to most meaningful controlling factors. Using spatially explicit N fertilizer and manure inputs, we also investigated the implications of using the EF1 developed as part of this research and adopted by the 2019 IPCC refinement report. Our results demonstrated that climate is a major driver of emission, with an EF1 three times higher in wet climates (0.014, 95% CI 0.011-0.017) than in dry climates (0.005, 95% CI 0.000-0.011). Likewise, the form of the fertilizer markedly modulated the EF1 in wet climates, where the EF1 for synthetic and mixed forms (0.016, 95% CI 0.013-0.019) was also almost three times larger than the EF1 for organic forms (0.006; 95% CI 0.001-0.011). Other factors such as land cover and soil texture, C content, and pH were also important regulators of the EF1 . The uncertainty associated with the disaggregated EF1 was considerably reduced as compared to the range in the 2006 IPCC guidelines. Compared to estimates from the 2006 IPCC EF1 , emissions based on the 2019 IPCC EF1 range from 15% to 46% lower in countries dominated by dry climates to 7%-37% higher in countries with wet climates and high synthetic N fertilizer consumption. The adoption of the 2019 IPCC EF1 will allow parties to improve the accuracy of emissions' inventories and to better target areas for implementing mitigation strategies.

Assuntos

RESUMO

Soil respiration is a major component of the global carbon cycle which links ecosystems and the atmosphere. To evaluate the reaction of soil respiration after wetting, during a dry period, soil respiration and associated environmental factors were measured over a 24-h period, during the dry season in North Cameroon after wetting the soil. Over 24-h, soil respiration rates followed a quadratic curve during the day coming close to linear at night, while soil temperature and moisture together explained at least 73 % of the variations during the 24-h observed. These soil respiration rates increased during the morning, peaked between 11h00 and 13h00 and then decreased gradually to the minimum around 06h00. These observations were used to propose a method for estimating mean daytime and nighttime soil respiration after wetting the soil. The method proposed in this study has the advantage of being based on a small number of measurements and is, therefore, easier to implement for monitoring 24-h soil respiration after the first rains following a long dry period.(AU)

Assuntos

RESUMO

Soil respiration is a major component of the global carbon cycle which links ecosystems and the atmosphere. To evaluate the reaction of soil respiration after wetting, during a dry period, soil respiration and associated environmental factors were measured over a 24-h period, during the dry season in North Cameroon after wetting the soil. Over 24-h, soil respiration rates followed a quadratic curve during the day coming close to linear at night, while soil temperature and moisture together explained at least 73 % of the variations during the 24-h observed. These soil respiration rates increased during the morning, peaked between 11h00 and 13h00 and then decreased gradually to the minimum around 06h00. These observations were used to propose a method for estimating mean daytime and nighttime soil respiration after wetting the soil. The method proposed in this study has the advantage of being based on a small number of measurements and is, therefore, easier to implement for monitoring 24-h soil respiration after the first rains following a long dry period.

Assuntos

RESUMO

Although highly weathered soils cover considerable areas in tropical regions, little is known about exploration by roots in deep soil layers. Intensively managed Eucalyptus plantations are simple forest ecosystems that can provide an insight into the belowground growth strategy of fast-growing tropical trees. Fast exploration of deep soil layers by eucalypt fine roots may contribute to achieving a gross primary production that is among the highest in the world for forests. Soil exploration by fine roots down to a depth of 10 m was studied throughout the complete cycle in Eucalyptus grandis plantations managed in short rotation. Intersects of fine roots, less than 1 mm in diameter, and medium-sized roots, 1-3 mm in diameter, were counted on trench walls in a chronosequence of 1-, 2-, 3.5-, and 6-year-old plantations on a sandy soil, as well as in an adjacent 6-year-old stand growing in a clayey soil. Two soil profiles were studied down to a depth of 10 m in each stand (down to 6 m at ages 1 and 2 years) and 4 soil profiles down to 1.5-3.0 m deep. The root intersects were counted on 224 m(2) of trench walls in 15 pits. Monitoring the soil water content showed that, after clear-cutting, almost all the available water stored down to a depth of 7 m was taken up by tree roots within 1.1 year of planting. The soil space was explored intensively by fine roots down to a depth of 3 m from 1 year after planting, with an increase in anisotropy in the upper layers throughout the rotation. About 60% of fine root intersects were found at a depth of more than 1 m, irrespective of stand age. The root distribution was isotropic in deep soil layers and kriged maps showed fine root clumping. A considerable volume of soil was explored by fine roots in eucalypt plantations on deep tropical soils, which might prevent water and nutrient losses by deep drainage after canopy closure and contribute to maximizing resource uses.

RESUMO

Soil organic carbon (SOC) is usually said to be well correlated with soil texture and soil aggregation. These relations generally suggest a physical and physicochemical protection of SOC within soil aggregates and on soil fine particles, respectively. Because there are few experimental evidences of these relations on tropical soils, we tested the relations of soil variables (SOC and soil aggregate contents, and soil texture) with the amount of SOC physically protected in aggregates on a set of 15 Malagasy soils. The soil texture, the SOC and water stable macroaggregate (MA) contents and the amount of SOC physically protected inside aggregates, calculated as the difference of C mineralized by crushed and intact aggregates, were characterized. The relation between these variables was established. SOC content was significantly correlated with soil texture (clay+fine silt fraction) and with soil MA amount while protected SOC content was not correlated with soil MA amount. This lack of correlation might be attributed to the highest importance of physicochemical protection of SOC which is demonstrated by the positive relation between SOC and clay+fine silt fraction.

RESUMO

Soil organic carbon (SOC) is usually said to be well correlated with soil texture and soil aggregation. These relations generally suggest a physical and physicochemical protection of SOC within soil aggregates and on soil fine particles, respectively. Because there are few experimental evidences of these relations on tropical soils, we tested the relations of soil variables (SOC and soil aggregate contents, and soil texture) with the amount of SOC physically protected in aggregates on a set of 15 Malagasy soils. The soil texture, the SOC and water stable macroaggregate (MA) contents and the amount of SOC physically protected inside aggregates, calculated as the difference of C mineralized by crushed and intact aggregates, were characterized. The relation between these variables was established. SOC content was significantly correlated with soil texture (clay+fine silt fraction) and with soil MA amount while protected SOC content was not correlated with soil MA amount. This lack of correlation might be attributed to the highest importance of physicochemical protection of SOC which is demonstrated by the positive relation between SOC and clay+fine silt fraction.

RESUMO

The growing demand of world food and energy supply increases the threat of global warming due to higher greenhouse gas emissions by agricultural activity. Therefore, it is widely admitted that agriculture must establish a new paradigm in terms of environmental sustainability that incorporate techniques for mitigation of greenhouse gas emissions. This article addresses to the scientific demand to estimate in a fast and inexpensive manner current and potential soil organic carbon (SOC) stocks in degraded pastures, using remote sensing techniques. Four pastures on sandy soils under Brazilian Cerrado vegetation in São Paulo state were chosen due to their SOC sequestration potential, which was characterized for the soil depth 0-50 cm. Subsequently, a linear regression analysis was performed between SOC and Leaf Area Index (LAI) measured in the field (LAIfield) and derived by satellite (LAIsatellite) as well as SOC and pasture reflectance in six spectra from 450 nm - 2350 nm, using the Enhanced Thematic Mapper (ETM+) sensor of satellite Landsat 7. A high correlation between SOC and LAIfield (R² = 0.9804) and LAIsatellite (R² = 0.9812) was verified. The suitability of satellite derived LAI for SOC determination leads to the assumption, that orbital remote sensing is a very promising SOC estimation technique from regional to global scale.

RESUMO

The growing demand of world food and energy supply increases the threat of global warming due to higher greenhouse gas emissions by agricultural activity. Therefore, it is widely admitted that agriculture must establish a new paradigm in terms of environmental sustainability that incorporate techniques for mitigation of greenhouse gas emissions. This article addresses to the scientific demand to estimate in a fast and inexpensive manner current and potential soil organic carbon (SOC) stocks in degraded pastures, using remote sensing techniques. Four pastures on sandy soils under Brazilian Cerrado vegetation in São Paulo state were chosen due to their SOC sequestration potential, which was characterized for the soil depth 0-50 cm. Subsequently, a linear regression analysis was performed between SOC and Leaf Area Index (LAI) measured in the field (LAIfield) and derived by satellite (LAIsatellite) as well as SOC and pasture reflectance in six spectra from 450 nm - 2350 nm, using the Enhanced Thematic Mapper (ETM+) sensor of satellite Landsat 7. A high correlation between SOC and LAIfield (R² = 0.9804) and LAIsatellite (R² = 0.9812) was verified. The suitability of satellite derived LAI for SOC determination leads to the assumption, that orbital remote sensing is a very promising SOC estimation technique from regional to global scale.

RESUMO

EX-ACT (EX-Ante Carbon-balance Tool) is a tool developed by the Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FAO). It provides ex-ante measurements of the mitigation impact of agriculture and forestry development projects, estimating net C balance from GHG emissions and Carbon (C) sequestration. EX-ACT is a land-based accounting system, measuring C stocks, stock changes per unit of land, and CH4 and N2O emissions expressed in t CO2-eq per hectare and year. The main output of the tool is an estimation of the C-balance associated with the adoption of improved land management options, as compared with a "business as usual" scenario. EX-ACT has been developed using primarily the IPCC 2006 Guidelines for National Greenhouse Gas Inventories, complemented by other existing methodologies and reviews of default coefficients. Default values for mitigation options in the agriculture sector are mostly from the 4th Assessment Report of IPCC (2007). Thus, EX-ACT allows for the carbonbalance appraisal of new investment programmes by ensuring an appropriate method available for donors and planning officers, project designers, and decision makers within agriculture and forestry sectors in developing countries. The tool can also help to identify the mitigation impacts of various investment project options, and thus provide an additional criterion for consideration in project selection.

EX-ACT (Ex-Ante Carbon-balance Tool, ferramenta para o balanço ex-ante de Carbono) é desenvolvida pela Organização das Nações Unidas para Agricultura e Alimentação (FAO). Tem como finalidade de fornecer estimativas ex-ante do impacto de atenuação na agricultura e nos projetos de desenvolvimento florestal, estimando o saldo líquido das emissões dos gases do efeito estufa (GEE) e do seqüestro de carbono (C). EX-ACT é um sistema de contabilidade que considera o uso da terra, medindo estoques de C, mudanças do estoque por unidade de área, e emissões de CH4 e N2O expressos em CO2-eq por hectare e por ano. O resultado principal da ferramenta é uma estimativa do balanço de CO2-eq associados à adoção de opções de melhoria do manejo da terra, em comparação com um cenário chamado de "business as usual". EX-ACT foi desenvolvida usando principalmente as recomendações de 1996 para estabelecer os inventários nacionais de GEE (Guidelines for National Greenhouse Gas Inventories IPCC, 2006) complementada por outras metodologias existentes e coeficientes padrão especificos quando disponíveis. Os valores padrão para as opções de mitigação no setor agrícola são na sua maioria provenientes do 4º Relatório de Avaliação do IPCC (2007). Assim, EX-ACT estima o balanço de C dos novos programas de investimentos, garantindo um método adequado e disponível para financiadores e agentes de planejamento, projetistas, e governantes para os setores da agricultura e da silvicultura nos países em desenvolvimento. A ferramenta também pode ajudar a identificar os impactos de atenuação de opções possíveis em vários projetos de investimento, e assim fornecer um critério adicional para escolhê-las como parte dos projetos.

RESUMO

National inventories of anthropogenic greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions (implementation of the National Communications) are organized according to five main sectors, namely: Energy, Industrial Processes, Agriculture, Land-Use Change and Forestry (LUCF) and Waste. The objective of this study was to review and calculate the potential of greenhouse gas mitigation strategies in Brazil for the Agricultural and LUCF. The first step consisted in an analysis of Brazilian official and unofficial documents related to climate change and mitigation policies. Secondly, business as usual (BAU) and mitigation scenarios were elaborated for the 2010-2020 timeframe, and calculations of the corresponding associated GHG emissions and removals were performed. Additionally, two complementary approaches were used to point out and quantify the main mitigation options: a) following the IPCC 1996 guidelines and b) based on EX-ACT. Brazilian authorities announced that the country will target a reduction in its GHG between 36.1 and 38.9% from projected 2020 levels. This is a positive stand that should also be adopted by other developing countries. To reach this government goal, agriculture and livestock sectors must contribute with an emission reduction of 133 to 166 Mt CO2-eq. This seems to be reachable when confronted to our mitigation option values, which are in between the range of 178.3 to 445 Mt CO2-eq. Government investments on agriculture are necessary to minimize the efforts from the sectors to reach their targets.

Inventários nacionais acerca de emissões de gases do efeito estufa (GEE) (refinamentos das Comunicações Nacionais) são organizadas de acordo com cinco principais setores, a saber: Energia, Processos Industriais, Agropecuária, Mudanças do Uso da Terra e Florestas e Tratamento de Resíduos. O objetivo dessa revisão foi calcular o potencial das estratégias de mitigação de GEE no Brasil para agropecuária e mudança de uso da terra e florestas. A primeira etapa consistiu na análise de documentos oficiais e não-oficiais do Brasil relacionados a mudanças climáticas e políticas de mitigação. O cenário atual, sem adoção de ações mitigadoras (BAU), e os cenários de mitigação foram elaborados para o período 2010-2020. Efetuaram-se os cálculos associados às emissões e remoções de GEE. Adicionalmente, duas estratégias foram utilizadas para destacar e quantificar as principais opções de mitigação: a) seguindo metodologia do IPCC 1996 e b) baseando-se no EX-ACT. Autoridades brasileiras anunciaram que o país buscará reduzir sua taxa de emissão de GEE em 36.1 a 38.9% em relação a 2020. Este é um posicionamento positivo que deve ser adotado por outros países em desenvolvimento. Para alcançar essa meta governamental, os setores agricultura e pecuária devem contribuir reduzindo a emissão em 133 a 166 Mt CO2-eq. Tal redução parece ser atingível quando confrontada com os valores do presente trabalho sobre opções de mitigação os quais estão entre 178,3 e 445 Mt CO2-eq. Investimentos governamentais nos setores agrícola, pecuária e silvicultura são necessários para minimizar os esforços para atingir as metas de redução de emissão pelos outros setores do país.

RESUMO

National inventories of anthropogenic greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions (implementation of the National Communications) are organized according to five main sectors, namely: Energy, Industrial Processes, Agriculture, Land-Use Change and Forestry (LUCF) and Waste. The objective of this study was to review and calculate the potential of greenhouse gas mitigation strategies in Brazil for the Agricultural and LUCF. The first step consisted in an analysis of Brazilian official and unofficial documents related to climate change and mitigation policies. Secondly, business as usual (BAU) and mitigation scenarios were elaborated for the 2010-2020 timeframe, and calculations of the corresponding associated GHG emissions and removals were performed. Additionally, two complementary approaches were used to point out and quantify the main mitigation options: a) following the IPCC 1996 guidelines and b) based on EX-ACT. Brazilian authorities announced that the country will target a reduction in its GHG between 36.1 and 38.9% from projected 2020 levels. This is a positive stand that should also be adopted by other developing countries. To reach this government goal, agriculture and livestock sectors must contribute with an emission reduction of 133 to 166 Mt CO2-eq. This seems to be reachable when confronted to our mitigation option values, which are in between the range of 178.3 to 445 Mt CO2-eq. Government investments on agriculture are necessary to minimize the efforts from the sectors to reach their targets.

Inventários nacionais acerca de emissões de gases do efeito estufa (GEE) (refinamentos das Comunicações Nacionais) são organizadas de acordo com cinco principais setores, a saber: Energia, Processos Industriais, Agropecuária, Mudanças do Uso da Terra e Florestas e Tratamento de Resíduos. O objetivo dessa revisão foi calcular o potencial das estratégias de mitigação de GEE no Brasil para agropecuária e mudança de uso da terra e florestas. A primeira etapa consistiu na análise de documentos oficiais e não-oficiais do Brasil relacionados a mudanças climáticas e políticas de mitigação. O cenário atual, sem adoção de ações mitigadoras (BAU), e os cenários de mitigação foram elaborados para o período 2010-2020. Efetuaram-se os cálculos associados às emissões e remoções de GEE. Adicionalmente, duas estratégias foram utilizadas para destacar e quantificar as principais opções de mitigação: a) seguindo metodologia do IPCC 1996 e b) baseando-se no EX-ACT. Autoridades brasileiras anunciaram que o país buscará reduzir sua taxa de emissão de GEE em 36.1 a 38.9% em relação a 2020. Este é um posicionamento positivo que deve ser adotado por outros países em desenvolvimento. Para alcançar essa meta governamental, os setores agricultura e pecuária devem contribuir reduzindo a emissão em 133 a 166 Mt CO2-eq. Tal redução parece ser atingível quando confrontada com os valores do presente trabalho sobre opções de mitigação os quais estão entre 178,3 e 445 Mt CO2-eq. Investimentos governamentais nos setores agrícola, pecuária e silvicultura são necessários para minimizar os esforços para atingir as metas de redução de emissão pelos outros setores do país.

RESUMO

EX-ACT (EX-Ante Carbon-balance Tool) is a tool developed by the Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FAO). It provides ex-ante measurements of the mitigation impact of agriculture and forestry development projects, estimating net C balance from GHG emissions and Carbon (C) sequestration. EX-ACT is a land-based accounting system, measuring C stocks, stock changes per unit of land, and CH4 and N2O emissions expressed in t CO2-eq per hectare and year. The main output of the tool is an estimation of the C-balance associated with the adoption of improved land management options, as compared with a "business as usual" scenario. EX-ACT has been developed using primarily the IPCC 2006 Guidelines for National Greenhouse Gas Inventories, complemented by other existing methodologies and reviews of default coefficients. Default values for mitigation options in the agriculture sector are mostly from the 4th Assessment Report of IPCC (2007). Thus, EX-ACT allows for the carbonbalance appraisal of new investment programmes by ensuring an appropriate method available for donors and planning officers, project designers, and decision makers within agriculture and forestry sectors in developing countries. The tool can also help to identify the mitigation impacts of various investment project options, and thus provide an additional criterion for consideration in project selection.

EX-ACT (Ex-Ante Carbon-balance Tool, ferramenta para o balanço ex-ante de Carbono) é desenvolvida pela Organização das Nações Unidas para Agricultura e Alimentação (FAO). Tem como finalidade de fornecer estimativas ex-ante do impacto de atenuação na agricultura e nos projetos de desenvolvimento florestal, estimando o saldo líquido das emissões dos gases do efeito estufa (GEE) e do seqüestro de carbono (C). EX-ACT é um sistema de contabilidade que considera o uso da terra, medindo estoques de C, mudanças do estoque por unidade de área, e emissões de CH4 e N2O expressos em CO2-eq por hectare e por ano. O resultado principal da ferramenta é uma estimativa do balanço de CO2-eq associados à adoção de opções de melhoria do manejo da terra, em comparação com um cenário chamado de "business as usual". EX-ACT foi desenvolvida usando principalmente as recomendações de 1996 para estabelecer os inventários nacionais de GEE (Guidelines for National Greenhouse Gas Inventories IPCC, 2006) complementada por outras metodologias existentes e coeficientes padrão especificos quando disponíveis. Os valores padrão para as opções de mitigação no setor agrícola são na sua maioria provenientes do 4º Relatório de Avaliação do IPCC (2007). Assim, EX-ACT estima o balanço de C dos novos programas de investimentos, garantindo um método adequado e disponível para financiadores e agentes de planejamento, projetistas, e governantes para os setores da agricultura e da silvicultura nos países em desenvolvimento. A ferramenta também pode ajudar a identificar os impactos de atenuação de opções possíveis em vários projetos de investimento, e assim fornecer um critério adicional para escolhê-las como parte dos projetos.

RESUMO

Data from the 1990-1994 period presented in the "Brazil's Initial National Communication" document indicated that the country is one of the top world greenhouse gas (GHG) emitters. A large majority of Brazil's GHG emissions come from deforestation mainly of the Amazon biome for agriculture and livestock land uses. This unique inventory is now out of date. Thus, the aims of this review were (i) to update estimates of the GHG emissions for the Brazilian territory, (ii) to estimate the sinks to provide calculations of the GHG net emissions for the 1990-2005 period, (iii) to calculate the actual and estimate shares of agricultural and livestock activities, and (iv) to discuss in light of the new figures and patterns the best mitigation options for Brazil. Total emissions in CO2-eq increased by 17% during the 1994-2005 period. CO2 represented 72.3% of the total, i.e. a small decrease, in favour of non-CO2 GHG, in relation to 1994 when its share was 74.1%. The increase of all GHG excluding Land Use Change and Forestry (LUCF) was 41.3% over the period 1994-2005. Climate Analysis Indicators Tool (CAIT) - World Resources Institute (WRI) estimated a higher increase (48.9%) that classified Brazil at the 69th position. Using our estimates Brazil will fall to the 78th position. But in both cases Brazil increased in clearly lower values than the tendency calculated for China and India, two major emitters, with increases of 88.8% and 62.1%, respectively. Brazil's increase is less than those presented for some countries in Annex 1 that are submitted to a quota of reduction, e.g. Spain with 55.6% of increase and New Zealand with 45.8%. Brazil also is below the average increase shown by non-Annex I countries, estimated to be 61.3%, but above the world average (28.1%). Besides the effort to curb emissions from the energy and deforestation sectors, it is now a top priority to implement a national program to promote mitigation efforts concerning the agricultural and livestock sectors. These mitigation options should not be only focused on emission reductions, but also prone enhancement of the carbon sink. Such a program would be easy to be implemented, because several mitigation strategies have already proven to be efficient, simple to adopt and economically viable.

Os resultados referentes ao período de 1990-1994 apresentados na Comunicação Nacional brasileira indicam que o país é um dos maiores emissores de gases do efeito estufa (GEE) do mundo. O documento também estabelece que a maior parte da emissão de GEE advém do desmatamento, principalmente do bioma Amazônia, para dar lugar á agricultura e pecuária. Este único inventário está agora ultrapassado. Os objetivos desta revisão foram: (i) atualizar a estimativa da emissão de GEE para o território brasileiro; (ii) estimar a possível fixação de C que permita calcular a emissão líquida de GEE para o período de 1990-2005; (iii) calcular a contribuição efetiva e compartilhada das atividades agrícolas e pecuárias; e (iv) discutir sob a luz dos novos conhecimentos as melhores opções de mitigação para o Brasil. A emissão total de GEE em equivalente em CO2 aumentou em 17% durante o período de 1994-2005. O CO2 foi responsável por 72,3% do total, ou seja, houve uma pequena diminuição em relação aos outros GEE, uma vez que em 1994 sua participação foi de 74,1%. O aumento de todas as fontes dos GEE, excluída mudança do uso da terra e reflorestamento, foi de 41,3% durante o período de 1994-2005. Climate Analysis Indicators Tool (CAIT) - World Resources Institute (WRI) estimaram um crescimento maior (48,9%), que classifica o Brasil na 69ª posição no ranking mundial de emissores. Utilizando as estimativas deste estudo, o Brasil ocuparia a 78ª posição. Em ambos os casos, porém, o Brasil claramente aumentou suas emissões num ritmo menor do que os que foram calculados para a China e Índia, dois dos maiores emissores, com aumentos de respectivamente 88,8 e 62,1%. O Brasil reduziu suas emissões em taxa maior do que alguns países do Anexo I, sujeitos a uma quota de redução. É o caso da Espanha e a Nova Zelândia que aumentaram em 55,6% e 45,8% suas emissões. O Brasil também está abaixo da média de aumento apresentado pelos países que não são do Anexo I, o qual foi estimado em 61,3%. No entanto, está acima da média global que foi de 28,1%. Além de trabalhar pela redução das emissões dos setores de energia e desmatamento, o Brasil deve agora ter como meta prioritária a implantação de um programa nacional de incentivo ás mitigações nos setores agrícola e pecuário. Tais opções de mitigação não deverão se concentrar somente na redução das emissões, mas também favorecer a fixação de carbono. Tal programa seria de fácil implementação, pois diversas estratégias de mitigação já provaram ser eficientes, fáceis de adotar e economicamente viáveis.

RESUMO

Data from the 1990-1994 period presented in the "Brazil's Initial National Communication" document indicated that the country is one of the top world greenhouse gas (GHG) emitters. A large majority of Brazil's GHG emissions come from deforestation mainly of the Amazon biome for agriculture and livestock land uses. This unique inventory is now out of date. Thus, the aims of this review were (i) to update estimates of the GHG emissions for the Brazilian territory, (ii) to estimate the sinks to provide calculations of the GHG net emissions for the 1990-2005 period, (iii) to calculate the actual and estimate shares of agricultural and livestock activities, and (iv) to discuss in light of the new figures and patterns the best mitigation options for Brazil. Total emissions in CO2-eq increased by 17% during the 1994-2005 period. CO2 represented 72.3% of the total, i.e. a small decrease, in favour of non-CO2 GHG, in relation to 1994 when its share was 74.1%. The increase of all GHG excluding Land Use Change and Forestry (LUCF) was 41.3% over the period 1994-2005. Climate Analysis Indicators Tool (CAIT) - World Resources Institute (WRI) estimated a higher increase (48.9%) that classified Brazil at the 69th position. Using our estimates Brazil will fall to the 78th position. But in both cases Brazil increased in clearly lower values than the tendency calculated for China and India, two major emitters, with increases of 88.8% and 62.1%, respectively. Brazil's increase is less than those presented for some countries in Annex 1 that are submitted to a quota of reduction, e.g. Spain with 55.6% of increase and New Zealand with 45.8%. Brazil also is below the average increase shown by non-Annex I countries, estimated to be 61.3%, but above the world average (28.1%). Besides the effort to curb emissions from the energy and deforestation sectors, it is now a top priority to implement a national program to promote mitigation efforts concerning the agricultural and livestock sectors. These mitigation options should not be only focused on emission reductions, but also prone enhancement of the carbon sink. Such a program would be easy to be implemented, because several mitigation strategies have already proven to be efficient, simple to adopt and economically viable.

Os resultados referentes ao período de 1990-1994 apresentados na Comunicação Nacional brasileira indicam que o país é um dos maiores emissores de gases do efeito estufa (GEE) do mundo. O documento também estabelece que a maior parte da emissão de GEE advém do desmatamento, principalmente do bioma Amazônia, para dar lugar á agricultura e pecuária. Este único inventário está agora ultrapassado. Os objetivos desta revisão foram: (i) atualizar a estimativa da emissão de GEE para o território brasileiro; (ii) estimar a possível fixação de C que permita calcular a emissão líquida de GEE para o período de 1990-2005; (iii) calcular a contribuição efetiva e compartilhada das atividades agrícolas e pecuárias; e (iv) discutir sob a luz dos novos conhecimentos as melhores opções de mitigação para o Brasil. A emissão total de GEE em equivalente em CO2 aumentou em 17% durante o período de 1994-2005. O CO2 foi responsável por 72,3% do total, ou seja, houve uma pequena diminuição em relação aos outros GEE, uma vez que em 1994 sua participação foi de 74,1%. O aumento de todas as fontes dos GEE, excluída mudança do uso da terra e reflorestamento, foi de 41,3% durante o período de 1994-2005. Climate Analysis Indicators Tool (CAIT) - World Resources Institute (WRI) estimaram um crescimento maior (48,9%), que classifica o Brasil na 69ª posição no ranking mundial de emissores. Utilizando as estimativas deste estudo, o Brasil ocuparia a 78ª posição. Em ambos os casos, porém, o Brasil claramente aumentou suas emissões num ritmo menor do que os que foram calculados para a China e Índia, dois dos maiores emissores, com aumentos de respectivamente 88,8 e 62,1%. O Brasil reduziu suas emissões em taxa maior do que alguns países do Anexo I, sujeitos a uma quota de redução. É o caso da Espanha e a Nova Zelândia que aumentaram em 55,6% e 45,8% suas emissões. O Brasil também está abaixo da média de aumento apresentado pelos países que não são do Anexo I, o qual foi estimado em 61,3%. No entanto, está acima da média global que foi de 28,1%. Além de trabalhar pela redução das emissões dos setores de energia e desmatamento, o Brasil deve agora ter como meta prioritária a implantação de um programa nacional de incentivo ás mitigações nos setores agrícola e pecuário. Tais opções de mitigação não deverão se concentrar somente na redução das emissões, mas também favorecer a fixação de carbono. Tal programa seria de fácil implementação, pois diversas estratégias de mitigação já provaram ser eficientes, fáceis de adotar e economicamente viáveis.

RESUMO

The intensive land use invariably has several negative effects on the environment and crop production if conservative practices are not adopted. Reduction in soil organic matter (SOM) quantity means gas emission (mainly CO2, CH4, N2O) to the atmosphere and increased global warming. Soil sustainability is also affected, since remaining SOM quality changes. Alterations can be verified, for example, by soil desegregation and changes in structure. The consequences are erosion, reduction in nutrient availability for the plants and lower water retention capacity. These and other factors reflect negatively on crop productivity and sustainability of the soil-plant-atmosphere system. Conversely, adoption of "best management practices", such as conservation tillage, can partly reverse the process - they are aimed at increasing the input of organic matter to the soil and/or decreasing the rates at which soil organic matter decomposes.

O uso intensivo da terra invariavelmente causa efeitos negativos ao ambiente e produção agrícola se práticas conservativas não forem adotadas. Redução na quantidade de matéria orgânica do solo significa emissão de gases (principalmente CO2, CH4, N2O) para a atmosfera e aumento do aquecimento global. A sustentabilidade do solo é também afetada, uma vez que a qualidade da matéria orgânica remanescente muda. Alterações podem ser verificadas, por exemplo, pela desagregação do solo e mudança na sua estrutura. As consequências são erosão, redução na disponibilidade de nutrientes para as plantas e baixa capacidade de retenção de água no solo. Estes e outros fatores refletem negativamente na produtivade das culturas e sustentabilidade do sistema solo-planta-atmosfera. Ao contrário, a adoção de boas práticas de manejo, tal como o sistema plantio direto, pode parcialmente reverter o processo, uma vez que objetiva o aumento das entradas de material orgânico no solo e/ou diminuição das taxas de decomposição da matéria orgânica do solo.

RESUMO

The intensive land use invariably has several negative effects on the environment and crop production if conservative practices are not adopted. Reduction in soil organic matter (SOM) quantity means gas emission (mainly CO2, CH4, N2O) to the atmosphere and increased global warming. Soil sustainability is also affected, since remaining SOM quality changes. Alterations can be verified, for example, by soil desegregation and changes in structure. The consequences are erosion, reduction in nutrient availability for the plants and lower water retention capacity. These and other factors reflect negatively on crop productivity and sustainability of the soil-plant-atmosphere system. Conversely, adoption of "best management practices", such as conservation tillage, can partly reverse the process - they are aimed at increasing the input of organic matter to the soil and/or decreasing the rates at which soil organic matter decomposes.

O uso intensivo da terra invariavelmente causa efeitos negativos ao ambiente e produção agrícola se práticas conservativas não forem adotadas. Redução na quantidade de matéria orgânica do solo significa emissão de gases (principalmente CO2, CH4, N2O) para a atmosfera e aumento do aquecimento global. A sustentabilidade do solo é também afetada, uma vez que a qualidade da matéria orgânica remanescente muda. Alterações podem ser verificadas, por exemplo, pela desagregação do solo e mudança na sua estrutura. As consequências são erosão, redução na disponibilidade de nutrientes para as plantas e baixa capacidade de retenção de água no solo. Estes e outros fatores refletem negativamente na produtivade das culturas e sustentabilidade do sistema solo-planta-atmosfera. Ao contrário, a adoção de boas práticas de manejo, tal como o sistema plantio direto, pode parcialmente reverter o processo, uma vez que objetiva o aumento das entradas de material orgânico no solo e/ou diminuição das taxas de decomposição da matéria orgânica do solo.

RESUMO

This paper shows the geographic distribution in Germany of iron (Fe), nickel (Ni) and lead (Pb) analyzed in mosses in 1995/96 and compares it with the results of the 1990/91 pilot study within a European moss-monitoring programme. Other elements (As, Cd, Cr, Cu, Ti, V, Zn) are compared on basis of the overall element medians for Germany of the 1990/91 and 1995/96 survey. Samples of Pleurozium schreberi, Scleropodium purum, Hypnum cupressiforme and Hylocomium splendens were taken at a total of 1026 sites. In the 1995/96 monitoring campaign, 95% of the original sites of the 1990/91 study were resampled. The results from 1995/96 display local elevated values and many cases of areas affected by known sources of heavy-metal emissions. The industrialized and urban regions of Germany are shown up clearly by the 1995/96 moss-monitoring results: the Ruhr area, parts of Saarland and Baden-Württemberg, as well as areas in eastern Germany. Relatively low values for many elements were found in large areas of Lower Saxony and Bavaria. A comparison of the results of the 1990/91 and 1995/96 moss-monitoring programmes shows a fall in the concentration of the presented elements (except cadmium, copper and zinc) over the relevant period. Especially in the former GDR, chromium (Cr), iron (Fe), titanium (Ti) and vanadium (V) decreased significantly. This is, firstly, a reflection of the closure of and/or technological improvements to large power plants; secondly it is due to the fact that lignite has given way to other fuels. Vanadium (V) and nickel (Ni), typical constituents of crude oil, also show a decrease in the western part and thus document changes in the type of fuel consumed. The significant fall in lead concentration in 1995/96 as compared to 1990/91 in what used to be East and West Germany probably results from the increasing use of lead-free petrol. A comparison of the median values for 1990/91 and 1995/96 in mosses to the rate of emission of heavy metals in Germany for 1990 and 1995 shows similar trends in the case of elements such as arsenic (As), chromium (Cr), nickel (Ni), and lead (Pb). The comparison of the medians of the elements analyzed for 19 European countries indicates for most of the elements a general tendency to lower values in 1995, except for Lithuania, Netherlands, Portugal, Italy and United Kingdom.

Assuntos

RESUMO

Soil samples from sites 4, 10 and 15 year-old pastures and one reference native forest, from Paragominas-Pará (Brazil), were used to determine the carbon (C) and nitrogen (N) contents and the natural abundance of ¹³C isotope, with the objective of quantifying the C and N budgets during replacement of the forest by pastures. With pasture establishment, C and N contents were increased. After 4 and 15 years of pasture, the C content increased to 0.28 kg.m-2 and 0.86 kg.m-2 respectively in the 0-30 cm soil layer. The 10 year pasture remained stable (0.02 kg.m-2 decreased) in relation to the natural forest, but decreased by 0.15 kg.m-2 in the 0-10 cm layer. In the 0-30 cm layer, organic matter in the natural forest site was 2.6 kg.m-2 stable C and 2.1 kg.m-2 biodegradable C. After 10 and 15 years under pasture, biodegradable C represented 1.3 kg.m-2 and 1.0 kg.m-2, corresponding to 27.7% and 21.3% of the original forest C, while the stable C represented 2.6 kg.m-2.

Amostras de terra de áreas desmatadas há 4, 10 e 15 anos e utilizadas como pastagem e uma floresta nativa na região de Paragominas-PA, foram analisadas quanto à constituição isotópica e teor de carbono (C) e nitrogênio (N) com o objetivo de quantificar os estoques de C e N e as alterações devidas a mudanças do uso da terra. O conteúdo de C e N aumentaram ao longo do tempo de uso do solo como pastagem. Após 4 e 15 anos de cultivo o conteúdo de C aumentou 0,28 e 0,86 kg.m-2 na camada superficial 0-30 cm do solo; a pastagem de 10 anos ficou estável (diminuição de 0,02 kg.m-2) em relação à mata natural para a camada 0-30 cm, mas diminuiu de 0,15 na camada 0-10 cm. Na camada superficial 0-30 cm, a matéria orgânica da área sob mata natural é composta por 2,6 kg.m-2 de C estável e 2,1 kg.m-2 de C biodegradável, sendo que após 10 e 15 anos de pastagem o C biodegradável representou 1,3 e 1,0 kg.m-2, correspondendo a 27,7% e 21,3% do C original da floresta e o carbono estável representou 2,6 kg.m-2. Pode-se supor que os processos biológicos do solo ficam quase exclusivamente na dependência do C introduzido pela pastagem, uma vez que metade do estoque do C está na forma estável e que o C biodegradável remanescente da floresta mineraliza rapidamente.

RESUMO

Soil samples from sites 4, 10 and 15 year-old pastures and one reference native forest, from Paragominas-Pará (Brazil), were used to determine the carbon (C) and nitrogen (N) contents and the natural abundance of ¹³C isotope, with the objective of quantifying the C and N budgets during replacement of the forest by pastures. With pasture establishment, C and N contents were increased. After 4 and 15 years of pasture, the C content increased to 0.28 kg.m-2 and 0.86 kg.m-2 respectively in the 0-30 cm soil layer. The 10 year pasture remained stable (0.02 kg.m-2 decreased) in relation to the natural forest, but decreased by 0.15 kg.m-2 in the 0-10 cm layer. In the 0-30 cm layer, organic matter in the natural forest site was 2.6 kg.m-2 stable C and 2.1 kg.m-2 biodegradable C. After 10 and 15 years under pasture, biodegradable C represented 1.3 kg.m-2 and 1.0 kg.m-2, corresponding to 27.7% and 21.3% of the original forest C, while the stable C represented 2.6 kg.m-2.

Amostras de terra de áreas desmatadas há 4, 10 e 15 anos e utilizadas como pastagem e uma floresta nativa na região de Paragominas-PA, foram analisadas quanto à constituição isotópica e teor de carbono (C) e nitrogênio (N) com o objetivo de quantificar os estoques de C e N e as alterações devidas a mudanças do uso da terra. O conteúdo de C e N aumentaram ao longo do tempo de uso do solo como pastagem. Após 4 e 15 anos de cultivo o conteúdo de C aumentou 0,28 e 0,86 kg.m-2 na camada superficial 0-30 cm do solo; a pastagem de 10 anos ficou estável (diminuição de 0,02 kg.m-2) em relação à mata natural para a camada 0-30 cm, mas diminuiu de 0,15 na camada 0-10 cm. Na camada superficial 0-30 cm, a matéria orgânica da área sob mata natural é composta por 2,6 kg.m-2 de C estável e 2,1 kg.m-2 de C biodegradável, sendo que após 10 e 15 anos de pastagem o C biodegradável representou 1,3 e 1,0 kg.m-2, correspondendo a 27,7% e 21,3% do C original da floresta e o carbono estável representou 2,6 kg.m-2. Pode-se supor que os processos biológicos do solo ficam quase exclusivamente na dependência do C introduzido pela pastagem, uma vez que metade do estoque do C está na forma estável e que o C biodegradável remanescente da floresta mineraliza rapidamente.