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El estridor es un síntoma de obstrucción de la vía aérea superior y puede ser resultado de causas congénitas o adquiridas. El diagnóstico suele ser clínico. Si es necesaria una investigación adicional para el diagnóstico diferencial, la endoscopia es el método de elección en la mayoría de los casos. Los estudios por imágenes son complementarios a la endoscopia. Permiten evaluar la patología laríngea y traqueobronquial, las compresiones extrínsecas de la vía aérea por tumores o malformaciones vasculares y definir la localización, extensión y características de una lesión. Son útiles en casos de duda diagnóstica y cuando la endoscopia no está disponible. Es fundamental comprender la anatomía y fisiopatología del tracto respiratorio, y ser conscientes de las indicaciones y limitaciones de los exámenes complementarios para el diagnóstico adecuado. Se describen las diferentes modalidades de imágenes disponibles para evaluar el estridor en pediatría y se discuten sus ventajas.

Stridor is a symptom of upper airway obstruction and may result from congenital or acquired causes. The diagnosis is usually clinical. If further investigation is necessary for differential diagnosis, endoscopy is the method of choice in most cases. Imaging studies are complementary to endoscopy. They allow evaluation of laryngeal and tracheobronchial pathology and extrinsic airway compressions due to tumors or vascular malformations and define a lesion's location, extent, and characteristics. They are helpful in cases of diagnostic doubt and when endoscopy is unavailable. It is essential to understand the anatomy and pathophysiology of the respiratory tract and to be aware of the indications and limitations of complementary examinations for proper diagnosis. The different imaging modalities available to evaluate stridor in pediatrics are described, and their advantages are discussed.

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After the paradigm shift in the treatment of excavated deformities caused by the introduction of the Nuss technique in 1998, several innovative technical modifications and new treatment modalities have radically changed the surgical approach of pectus excavatum in the last couple of years. These new trends attain different topics. On one hand, the use of three-dimensional (3D) printing and implant customization surge as a possibility for a wider audience as 3D printers become available with lower costs. They provide the surgeon with new elements that enable precise planning, simulation, and customized prostheses amidst a tendency to abandon standardization and incorporate personalized medicine. Another topic comprises mandatory sternal elevation, in the continuous search for safety first always. Complete thoracic remodeling as a goal of repair instead of addressing only focal depressions, leaving the upper chest or focal protrusions unresolved. Finally, although the current surgical approach has evolved significantly, many groups still use lateral stabilizers or direct implant fixation with sutures or wires to the ribs. These systems continue to prove unreliable in preventing implant displacement. Fortunately, the bridge technique, described in this review, has come to address this sometimes fatal issue with encouraging results. We provide an updated overview of the latest developments regarding these concepts, related to the current state-of-the-art of the treatment of pectus excavatum.

RESUMO

Technology is advancing fast, and chest wall surgery finds particular benefit in the broader availability of three-dimensional (3D) reconstruction and printing. An increasing number of reports are being published on the use of these resources in virtual 3D reconstructions of chest walls in computed tomography (CT) scans, virtual surgeries, 3D printing of real-size models for surgical planning, practice, and education, and of note, the manufacture of customized 3D printed implants, changing the fundamental conception from a surgery that fits all, to a surgery for each patient. In this review, we explore the evidence published on simple chest wall reconstruction, including the use of 3D technology to assist in the improvement of the repair of the most frequent chest wall deformities: pectus excavatum and carinatum. Current studies are oriented to the automatization and customization of transthoracic implants, as well as education on real-size models. Next, we investigate the implementation of 3D printing in the repair of complex chest wall reconstruction, comprised of infrequent chest wall deformities such as pectus arcuatum and Poland syndrome. These malformations are very heterogeneous resulting in a high degree of improvisation during the surgical repair. In this setting, 3D technology plays a role in the standardization of a process that contemplates customization, concepts that may seem contradictory. Finally, 3D printing with biocompatible materials is rapidly becoming the first choice for the reconstruction of wide chest wall oncological resections. In this work, we review the first and most important current publications on the subject.

RESUMO

Stridor is a symptom of upper airway obstruction and may result from congenital or acquired causes. The diagnosis is usually clinical. If further investigation is necessary for differential diagnosis, endoscopy is the method of choice in most cases. Imaging studies are complementary to endoscopy. They allow evaluation of laryngeal and tracheobronchial pathology and extrinsic airway compressions due to tumors or vascular malformations and define a lesion's location, extent, and characteristics. They are helpful in cases of diagnostic doubt and when endoscopy is unavailable. It is essential to understand the anatomy and pathophysiology of the respiratory tract and to be aware of the indications and limitations of complementary examinations for proper diagnosis. The different imaging modalities available to evaluate stridor in pediatrics are described, and their advantages are discussed.

El estridor es un síntoma de obstrucción de la vía aérea superior y puede ser resultado de causas congénitas o adquiridas. El diagnóstico suele ser clínico. Si es necesaria una investigación adicional para el diagnóstico diferencial, la endoscopia es el método de elección en la mayoría de los casos. Los estudios por imágenes son complementarios a la endoscopia. Permiten evaluar la patología laríngea y traqueobronquial, las compresiones extrínsecas de la vía aérea por tumores o malformaciones vasculares y definir la localización, extensión y características de una lesión. Son útiles en casos de duda diagnóstica y cuando la endoscopia no está disponible. Es fundamental comprender la anatomía y fisiopatología del tracto respiratorio, y ser conscientes de las indicaciones y limitaciones de los exámenes complementarios para el diagnóstico adecuado. Se describen las diferentes modalidades de imágenes disponibles para evaluar el estridor en pediatría y se discuten sus ventajas.

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BACKGROUND: We explored whether the maximum predicted walking distance, assessed with six-minute walk test (6MWT) and reflecting submaximal functional exercise capacity, is decreased among patients with pectus excavatum (PEX). METHODS: This study comprised a retrospective analysis of patients with PEX who underwent a 6MWT for the assessment of functional capacity. The maximum distance walked was recorded and compared to reference values established for different populations, including a young and healthy South American population. RESULTS: We included 43 patients with PEX who underwent 6MWT. The mean age was 17.8 ± 6.7 years. The mean maximum distance walked was significantly lower than the predicted distance (600.8 ± 67.6 metres vs. 729.8 ± 67.5 metres, p < 0.0001). Using the Enright reference equation including an older reference population, the mean negative difference was higher (PEX patients walked 190.4 ± 78.4 metres less than predicted, p < 0.0001). We also applied the Li et al. reference equation accounting for sex among other variables, detecting a decreased walked distance compared to the gender-adjusted predicted distance (PEX patients walked a mean 222.4 ± 87.4 metres less than predicted, p < 0.0001). Using the Ulrich et al. equation, PEX patients walked a mean 114.2 ± 85.1 metres less than predicted (p < 0.0001). Although of uncertain clinical relevance, there was a significant decrease in the mean oxygen saturation after exercise (baseline 97.4 ± 1.2%, vs. final 96.4 ± 2.1%, p = 0.006). CONCLUSIONS: In this study, we identified a significant reduction in the maximum walked distance among patients with PEX compared to the predicted distance, thus potentially emerging as an unsophisticated means to evaluate and quantify functional exercise capacity.

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Introduction: Ensuring patient safety in minimally invasive surgery (MIS) within the field of pediatric surgery requires systematic and extensive practice. Many groups have proposed mastery learning programs encompassing a range of training methods. However, short courses often have a narrow focus on specific objectives, limiting opportunities for sustained training. Our aim was to analyze our results with an online long-term competency-based and supervised training. Methods: This is a retrospective cohort study with prospective data collection of scores and performance of trainees during online courses from October 2020 to April 2023. Results: All participants (n = 76) were able to set up their personal training gym and complete the intensive stage of the course. The total score evolved from 2.60 ± 0.56 at the first meeting to 3.67 ± 0.61 at the fourth meeting, exhibiting a significant difference (P < .013). A considerable drop out was observed in the follow-up stage, with only 53.8% of the participants completing the course. When compared with the first meeting, they also showed a significant improvement with a mean general score of 3.85 ± 0.25 (P < .013) Conclusion: We have presented a novel online training program, based on continuous training that demonstrated that the unlimited access to a personal training gym allows surgeons to improve and maintain MIS skills.

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In the early childhood population, congenital airway conditions like bronchomalacia (BM) can pose a life-threatening threat. A breakthrough technology called additive manufacturing, or 3D printing, makes it feasible to create a biomedical device that aids in the treatment of airway obstruction. This article describes how a polycaprolactone (PCL) splint for the upper airways can be created using the fusion deposition technique (FDM) and sterilized using gamma radiation. It is presented as a simple, accessible, and cost-reduced alternative that complements other techniques using more expensive and sophisticated printing methods. Thermomechanical and morphological analysis proved that FDM and sterilizing by gamma irradiation are both appropriate methods for producing splints to treat life-threatening airway blockages. Additionally, the 3D-printed splints' effectiveness in treating a young patient with BM that was life-threatening was assessed by medical professionals. In this regard, the case report of a patient with 34 months of follow-up is presented. Splints manufactured by this affordable 3D printing method successfully surpass breathing arrest in life-threatening airway obstruction in pediatric patients. The success of this procedure represents a fundamental contribution to the treatment of the population in countries where access to expensive and complex technologies is not available.

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BACKGROUND: Systolic dysfunction in pectus excavatum (PEX) is usually very subtle and mainly focused on the right ventricle (RV), leading to normal or unremarkable cardiac imaging findings unless involving exercise stress. OBJECTIVES: We evaluated systolic function in PEX using longitudinal strain cardiac magnetic resonance (CMR), a validated parameter for the assessment of the systolic deformation of subendocardial fibers. METHODS: This prospective registry comprised consecutive patients with PEX who were referred to CMR to define treatment strategies or to establish surgical candidacy. We also included a control group of 15 healthy volunteers without chest wall abnormalities. Using dedicated software, we evaluated the endocardial global longitudinal strain (GLS) of both ventricles and the endocardial global circumferential strain (GCS) of the left ventricle (LV). RESULTS: A total of 50 patients with PEX comprised the study population, with a mean age of 19.9 ± 8.0 years. The right ventricular ejection fraction (RVEF) of patients with PEX was significantly lower compared to the control group both at end-expiration (59.5 ± 6.8 vs. 64.7 ± 4.7%, p = 0.008) and end-inspiration (56.7 ± 7.2%, vs. 62.7 ± 4.4, p = 0.004); as well as the pulmonary stroke distance (12.6 ± 2.5, vs. 15.0 ± 2.0 cm, p = 0.001). The LV volumetric analysis revealed no differences between PEX and the control group (p > 0.05 for all) regardless of the respiratory cycle, with a mean expiratory LV ejection fraction (LVEF) of 61.4 ± 6.0%. In contrast, the GLS of the LV was significantly lower in PEX compared to controls (-21.2 ± 3.2 vs. -23.7 ± 3.0%, p = 0.010), whereas GCS was similar either at expiration (-28.5 ± 4.0%, vs. -29.5 ± 2.8, p = 0.38) or inspiration (-29.3 ± 4.1%, vs.-28.9 ± 2.3, p = 0.73). CONCLUSIONS: In this study, we demonstrated that longitudinal strain analysis might enable the detection of very subtle left ventricular systolic function abnormalities in patients with PEX, that are commonly overlooked using the conventional assessment. LEVEL OF EVIDENCE: II.

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La decanulación es el proceso de retirar la cánula de traqueotomía de forma definitiva, una vez que la patología original que motivó la traqueotomía se haya resuelto o mejorado significativamente.La predicción del éxito de decanulación es difícil debido a la influencia de varios factores. No existe un protocolo universalmente aceptado. Existen diversos protocolos y la elección depende, en gran medida, de cada institución y de la situación individual de cada paciente. Sin embargo, para lograr la decanulación exitosa deben tenerse en cuenta varios criterios esenciales que deben cumplirse independientemente del protocolo elegido.Se señalan las características que debe reunir el paciente apto para la decanulación y se presentan recomendaciones sobre los pasos necesarios para lograr el retiro de la cánula de traqueotomía en el niño de manera segura y minimizando el riesgo de fracaso.

Decannulation is the process of removing the tracheotomy cannula permanently, once the original pathology that led to the tracheotomy has been resolved or significantly improved. The prediction of decannulation success is difficult due to the influence of several factors. There is no universally accepted decannulation protocol. There are several protocols and the choice depends, largely, on each institution and the individual situation of each patient. However, in order to achieve successful decannulation, several essential criteria must be taken into account, which must be fulfilled regardless of the chosen protocol.We indicate the characteristics that the patient must meet for decannulation, and we present recommendations on the necessary steps to achieve the removal of the tracheotomy cannula in a child safely and minimizing the risk of failure.

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Decannulation is the process of removing the tracheotomy cannula permanently, once the original pathology that led to the tracheotomy has been resolved or significantly improved. The prediction of decannulation success is difficult due to the influence of several factors. There is no universally accepted decannulation protocol. There are several protocols and the choice depends, largely, on each institution and the individual situation of each patient. However, in order to achieve successful decannulation, several essential criteria must be taken into account, which must be fulfilled regardless of the chosen protocol. We indicate the characteristics that the patient must meet for decannulation, and we present recommendations on the necessary steps to achieve the removal of the tracheotomy cannula in a child safely and minimizing the risk of failure.

La decanulación es el proceso de retirar la cánula de traqueotomía de forma definitiva, una vez que la patología original que motivó la traqueotomía se haya resuelto o mejorado significativamente. La predicción del éxito de decanulación es difícil debido a la influencia de varios factores. No existe un protocolo universalmente aceptado. Existen diversos protocolos y la elección depende, en gran medida, de cada institución y de la situación individual de cada paciente. Sin embargo, para lograr la decanulación exitosa deben tenerse en cuenta varios criterios esenciales que deben cumplirse independientemente del protocolo elegido. Se señalan las características que debe reunir el paciente apto para la decanulación y se presentan recomendaciones sobre los pasos necesarios para lograr el retiro de la cánula de traqueotomía en el niño de manera segura y minimizando el riesgo de fracaso.

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Tracheobronchomalacia (TBM) is the most common tracheobronchial obstruction. Most cases are mild to moderate; therefore, they do not need surgical treatment. Severe tracheomalacia, however, represents a diagnostic and therapeutic challenge since they are very heterogeneous. In the armamentarium of resources for the treatment of dynamic airway collapse, splints and stents are two underused strategies and yet, they may represent the best alternative in selected cases. Lately, computed tomography 3D reconstruction of the airway has been used for the design of virtual models that can be 3D-printed for the creation of novel devices to address training, simulation, and biotechnological implants for refractory and severe airway malformations. This manuscript examines the role of resorbable stents, splints, and the 3D reconstruction and printing of the pediatric airway in tracheobronchomalacia.

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Despite the emergent application of 3-dimensional technology for thoracic reconstructions, reports regarding its use for the resolution of the heterogeneous subgroup of complex chest wall malformations are lacking. We aim to report a novel, standardized process of personalized repair of complex chest wall malformations comprising multidisciplinary, comprehensive surgical planning; surgical simulation on a 3-dimensionally printed scale model of the area of interest; manufacturing of customized prostheses; and surgical repair according to plan. We propose this therapeutic strategy for the resolution of such a wide variety of chest wall deformities to reduce improvisation and enhance outcomes.

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BACKGROUND/PURPOSE: The development of computer-aided design/manufacturing and digital image technology shows promise to revolutionize several medical and surgical fields. In this context, we propose a different approach for minimally invasive repair of pectus excavatum (MIRPE) including preoperative planning, ambulatory template fitting, and implant customization. METHODS: We prospectively collected data on 130 consecutive patients who underwent a novel process of implant customization for MIRPE between November 2015 and September 2019 at our institution. This process consisted of: 1) preoperative planning using 3D computed tomography scan reconstruction and 3D printing of the implant template, 2) an ambulatory fitting session with the template, and 3) manufacture of a custom made, prebent, metallic implant based on the 3D printed templates. We described the process in detail and analyzed the "implant-deformity" match, need for rebending, modification of the curvature or shape of the pectus implant intraoperatively, and accuracy of the number of bars planned preoperatively. RESULTS: Preoperative planning including 3D reconstruction and printing resulted in a 92.3% optimal "implant-deformity" anatomic match. Minimal rebending without flipping of the implants was required in 5.4% of the patients. In two cases (1.5%), the implants were too short, and they tended to sink into the intercostal space, and in one case (0.8%), the patient's chest was extremely asymmetric, and the implant had to be removed and rebent intraoperatively. The number of implants planned preoperatively was precise in 100%. CONCLUSIONS: In this study, we demonstrated that minimally invasive repair of pectus excavatum assisted by preoperative planning, ambulatory template fitting, and implant customization enables an excellent anatomic match, leading to minimal rebending, and avoiding implant flipping or removal after retrosternal passage as well as accuracy in the number of bars programmed preoperatively. TYPE OF STUDY: Prospective registry. LEVEL OF EVIDENCE: III.

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La fístula traqueoesofágica congénita sin atresia esofágica asociada, conocida como tipo H, es una anomalía infrecuente. Se manifiesta con episodios de tos, ahogo y cianosis durante la alimentación y/o neumonía recurrente.Si bien los síntomas están usualmente presentes desde el nacimiento, el diagnóstico es difícil. La rareza de esta patología, los síntomas no específicos y las limitaciones en la demostración radiológica y endoscópica de la fístula contribuyen, a menudo, a la demora entre la presentación y la confirmación del diagnóstico.Se describen las manifestaciones clínicas, los métodos de evaluación y el tratamiento de 3 neonatos con esta patología, y se presentan recomendaciones para el diagnóstico a fin de evitar demoras innecesarias en el manejo de las fístulas en H.

Congenital tracheoesophageal fistula not associated with esophageal atresia, known as H-type fistula, is an uncommon anomaly. It presents with cough, choking, and cyanosis during feeding and/or recurrent pneumonia. Although symptoms are usually present from birth, diagnosis is difficult. The rarity of this disease, non-specific symptoms, and the limitations of radiological and endoscopic confirmation of the fistula often result in a delay between presentation and diagnosis confirmation. Here we describe the clinical manifestations, assessment methods, and management of 3 newborn infants with H-type tracheoesophageal fistula, together with diagnosis recommendations to prevent unnecessary delays in the management of this condition.

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La estenosis traqueal adquirida es muy poco frecuente en la edad pediátrica y puede responder a múltiples causas; la estenosis posintubación y la secundaria a traqueotomía son las más comunes.El manejo de la estenosis traqueal adquirida sigue siendo controvertido. El tratamiento endoscópico proporciona el alivio inmediato de los síntomas, pero se asocia a una alta tasa de recurrencia, y el uso de prótesis endoluminales puede incrementar la longitud de la estenosis y complicar una cirugía futura. Por el contrario, se han documentado buenos resultados a largo plazo con la resección traqueal con anastomosis primaria.Se describe nuestra experiencia con la resección traqueal con anastomosis término-terminal para el tratamiento de la estenosis traqueal posintubación en 8 pacientes.

Acquired tracheal stenosis is a very infrequent lesion in the pediatric age group and may be due to diverse causes, being post-intubation stenosis and stenosis secondary to tracheostomy the most common ones.The management of acquired tracheal stenosis remains controversial. Endoscopic treatment provides immediate relief of symptoms but it is associated with a high recurrence rate, and the use of endoluminal prostheses can increase the length of the stricture complicating future surgery. Conversely, good long-term results have been documented with tracheal resection and primary anastomosis.We describe our experience with tracheal resection followed by end-to-end anastomosis for the treatment of post-intubation tracheal stenosis in 8 patients.

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Arch Argent Pediatr 2020;118(1):e81-e84 / e81Presentación de casos clínicosRESUMENLas fístulas del seno piriforme son anomalías poco frecuentes de los arcos branquiales. La forma de presentación más común en los niños y los adolescentes es la tiroiditis aguda supurada y/o los abscesos cervicales laterales recurrentes. Sin embargo, las fístulas se pueden manifestar de forma atípica. La rareza de esta patología y la presentación clínica atípica pueden demorar el diagnóstico, lo que aumenta el riesgo de infecciones recurrentes y complicaciones.Se presenta el caso inusual de una adolescente de 13 años con absceso retrofaríngeo debido a una fístula congénita del seno piriforme, tratada de forma exitosa mediante electrocauterización endoscópica.

Pyriform sinus fistulas are rare anomalies of the branchial arches. The most common form of presentation in children and adolescents is acute suppurative thyroiditis and/or recurrent lateral cervical abscesses. However, fistulas can manifest atypically. The rarity of this pathology and the atypical clinical presentation can delay the diagnosis increasing the risk of recurrent infections and complications.We present the unusual case of a 13-year-old teenager with retropharyngeal abscess due to a congenital pyriform sinus fistula successfully treated by endoscopic electrocautery

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Congenital tracheoesophageal fistula not associated with esophageal atresia, known as H-type fistula, is an uncommon anomaly. It presents with cough, choking, and cyanosis during feeding and/or recurrent pneumonia. Although symptoms are usually present from birth, diagnosis is difficult. The rarity of this disease, non-specific symptoms, and the limitations of radiological and endoscopic confirmation of the fistula often result in a delay between presentation and diagnosis confirmation. Here we describe the clinical manifestations, assessment methods, and management of 3 newborn infants with H-type tracheoesophageal fistula, together with diagnosis recommendations to prevent unnecessary delays in the management of this condition.

La fístula traqueoesofágica congénita sin atresia esofágica asociada, conocida como tipo H, es una anomalía infrecuente. Se manifiesta con episodios de tos, ahogo y cianosis durante la alimentación y/o neumonía recurrente. Si bien los síntomas están usualmente presentes desde el nacimiento, el diagnóstico es difícil. La rareza de esta patología, los síntomas no específicos y las limitaciones en la demostración radiológica y endoscópica de la fístula contribuyen, a menudo, a la demora entre la presentación y la confirmación del diagnóstico. Se describen las manifestaciones clínicas, los métodos de evaluación y el tratamiento de 3 neonatos con esta patología, y se presentan recomendaciones para el diagnóstico a fin de evitar demoras innecesarias en el manejo de las fístulas en H.

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Acquired tracheal stenosis is a very infrequent lesion in the pediatric age group and may be due to diverse causes, being post-intubation stenosis and stenosis secondary to tracheostomy the most common ones. The management of acquired tracheal stenosis remains controversial. Endoscopic treatment provides immediate relief of symptoms but it is associated with a high recurrence rate, and the use of endoluminal prostheses can increase the length of the stricture complicating future surgery. Conversely, good long-term results have been documented with tracheal resection and primary anastomosis. We describe our experience with tracheal resection followed by end-to-end anastomosis for the treatment of post-intubation tracheal stenosis in 8 patients.

La estenosis traqueal adquirida es muy poco frecuente en la edad pediátrica y puede responder a múltiples causas; la estenosis posintubación y la secundaria a traqueotomía son las más comunes. El manejo de la estenosis traqueal adquirida sigue siendo controvertido. El tratamiento endoscópico proporciona el alivio inmediato de los síntomas, pero se asocia a una alta tasa de recurrencia, y el uso de prótesis endoluminales puede incrementar la longitud de la estenosis y complicar una cirugía futura. Por el contrario, se han documentado buenos resultados a largo plazo con la resección traqueal con anastomosis primaria. Se describe nuestra experiencia con la resección traqueal con anastomosis término-terminal para el tratamiento de la estenosis traqueal posintubación en 8 pacientes.

Assuntos

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Pyriform sinus fistulas are rare anomalies of the branchial arches. The most common form of presentation in children and adolescents is acute suppurative thyroiditis and/or recurrent lateral cervical abscesses. However, fistulas can manifest atypically. The rarity of this pathology and the atypical clinical presentation can delay the diagnosis increasing the risk of recurrent infections and complications. We present the unusual case of a 13-year-old teenager with retropharyngeal abscess due to a congenital pyriform sinus fistula successfully treated by endoscopic electrocautery.

Las fístulas del seno piriforme son anomalías poco frecuentes de los arcos branquiales. La forma de presentación más común en los niños y los adolescentes es la tiroiditis aguda supurada y/o los abscesos cervicales laterales recurrentes. Sin embargo, las fístulas se pueden manifestar de forma atípica. La rareza de esta patología y la presentación clínica atípica pueden demorar el diagnóstico, lo que aumenta el riesgo de infecciones recurrentes y complicaciones. Se presenta el caso inusual de una adolescente de 13 años con absceso retrofaríngeo debido a una fístula congénita del seno piriforme, tratada de forma exitosa mediante electrocauterización endoscópica.

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