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Schizophrenia is a neurodevelopmental disorder that affects brain structure and function. The retina, as well as the brain, consists of neuronal and glial cells packed in layers. Cortical volume and brain thickness are associated with inflammatory biomarkers, however, no study has been performed associating inflammatory biomarkers and retina in schizophrenia. our study aims to compare the retinal macular thickness and volume and peripapillary thickness in patients with schizophrenia and controls, and associate it to symptoms of schizophrenia, to interleukin-6 (IL-6) and C Reactive Protein (CRP) levels. Optical coherence tomography was performed to assess retinal layer thickness and volume, and CRP and IL-6 levels were measured in patients with schizophrenia and controls. Positive, negative, and general symptoms of schizophrenia were measured with the Positive and Negative Syndrome Scale (PANSS). A linear regression controlling for confounding factors was performed. 70 subjects were included, 35 patients, and 35 controls matched for sex and age. Patients with schizophrenia presented a significantly lower macular volume (p < 0.05) and thickness (< 0.05) than controls. PANSS positive, general and total scores were associated with retinal nerve fiber layer (RNFL) thickness (p < 0.05). There was no association between inflammatory markers (CRP and IL-6) levels and the retinal layer. A reduction in macular volume and thickness was found in patients with schizophrenia. The severity of schizophrenia symptoms was associated with RNFL thickness. CRP and IL-6 are not associated with retinal thickness/volume in schizophrenia or controls.
RESUMO
Introduction: Migraine, a common neurological disease, is known to impact the quality of life of individuals with this condition.Methods: We performed a systematic review with meta-analysis to investigate the abnormalities associated with executive functions of migraineurs as compared with healthy controls. In addition, we investigated the differences between patients with and without aura.Results: A total of 25 studies were included in the systematic review and 19 in the meta-analysis. Meta-analysis was conducted using random effects models, with the unit of analysis as the standardised mean difference (calculated as Hedges'g). Patients with migraine had worse performance in the trail making test A (g = 0.40; 95% confidence interval [CI] 0.05-0.74; p = 0.0271) and B (g = 0.40; 95% CI 0.16-0.64; p = 0.0026), and digit span backward test (g = -0.20; 95% CI - 0.31, - 0.09; p = 0.0105). Subgroup analysis revealed no difference between migraine with and without aura.Conclusion: These results suggest that migraine patients may present worse performance for specific executive functional domains, including attention, working memory, and mental flexibility.