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Family history and traumatic experiences are factors linked to bipolar disorder. It is known that the lifetime risk of bipolar disorder in relatives of a bipolar proband are 5-10% for first degree relatives and 40-70% for monozygotic co-twins. It is also known that patients with early childhood trauma present earlier onset of bipolar disorder, increased number of manic episodes, and more suicide attempts. We have recently reported that childhood trauma partly mediates the effect of family history on bipolar disorder diagnosis. In light of these findings from the scientific literature, we reviewed the work of British writer Virginia Woolf, who allegedly suffered from bipolar disorder. Her disorder was strongly related to her family background. Moreover, Virginia Woolf was sexually molested by her half siblings for nine years. Her bipolar disorder symptoms presented a pernicious course, associated with hospitalizations, suicidal behavioral, and functional impairment. The concept of neuroprogression has been used to explain the clinical deterioration that takes places in a subgroup of bipolar disorder patients. The examination of Virgina Woolf’s biography and art can provide clinicians with important insights about the course of bipolar disorder.

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Family history and traumatic experiences are factors linked to bipolar disorder. It is known that the lifetime risk of bipolar disorder in relatives of a bipolar proband are 5-10% for first degree relatives and 40-70% for monozygotic co-twins. It is also known that patients with early childhood trauma present earlier onset of bipolar disorder, increased number of manic episodes, and more suicide attempts. We have recently reported that childhood trauma partly mediates the effect of family history on bipolar disorder diagnosis. In light of these findings from the scientific literature, we reviewed the work of British writer Virginia Woolf, who allegedly suffered from bipolar disorder. Her disorder was strongly related to her family background. Moreover, Virginia Woolf was sexually molested by her half siblings for nine years. Her bipolar disorder symptoms presented a pernicious course, associated with hospitalizations, suicidal behavioral, and functional impairment. The concept of neuroprogression has been used to explain the clinical deterioration that takes places in a subgroup of bipolar disorder patients. The examination of Virgina Woolf's biography and art can provide clinicians with important insights about the course of bipolar disorder.

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Chronic mania is an under-investigated condition and few reports have associated this disorder with an organic background. The present work examines Kraepelin's reliable description of chronic mania from a current behavioral neurology viewpoint. Kraepelin had described a cluster of symptoms that are now recognized as core manifestations of the behavioral variant frontotemporal dementia (bvFTD) clinical phenotype. We also carried out additional reviews of original manuscripts from Kraepelin's peers, in order to find any case reports that might fulfill the current diagnostic proposal for bvFTD. Even though we failed to find an ideal case, we found some scholars who seemed to agree that chronic mania should be considered a special form of dementia. The present work highlights, through historical data, the possible overlapping features between primary psychiatric disorders and neuropsychiatric symptoms secondary to neurodegenerative conditions.

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ABSTRACT Chronic mania is an under-investigated condition and few reports have associated this disorder with an organic background. The present work examines Kraepelin’s reliable description of chronic mania from a current behavioral neurology viewpoint. Kraepelin had described a cluster of symptoms that are now recognized as core manifestations of the behavioral variant frontotemporal dementia (bvFTD) clinical phenotype. We also carried out additional reviews of original manuscripts from Kraepelin’s peers, in order to find any case reports that might fulfill the current diagnostic proposal for bvFTD. Even though we failed to find an ideal case, we found some scholars who seemed to agree that chronic mania should be considered a special form of dementia. The present work highlights, through historical data, the possible overlapping features between primary psychiatric disorders and neuropsychiatric symptoms secondary to neurodegenerative conditions.

RESUMO A mania crônica constitui uma condição subinvestigada e alguns trabalhos têm associado esta desordem a um substrato orgânico. O presente manuscrito analisa a descrição fidedigna de Kraepelin de mania crônica a partir de um ponto de vista atual da neurologia comportamental. Concebemos que ele havia descrito um conjunto de sintomas que atualmente é reconhecido como manifestações centrais do fenótipo clínico da variante comportamental da demência frontotemporal (bvFTD). Também realizamos uma revisão adicional de manuscritos originais de pares contemporâneos de Kraepelin, a fim de procurar por um único relato de caso que poderia preencher critério diagnóstico atual de bvFTD. Mesmo que não tenhamos conseguido encontrar um caso perfeitamente exemplar, identificamos que alguns estudiosos da época pareciam concordar que a mania crônica devesse ser considerada uma forma especial de demência. O presente trabalho destaca por meio de dados históricos a sobreposição entre transtornos psiquiátricos primários e sintomas neuropsiquiátricos secundários a doenças neurodegenerativas.

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INTRODUCTION: The particularities of those that have been considered "hard cases" in the clinical field, and their relationship with personality disorders, are discussed together with their quintessential conceptual and diagnostic model: the borderline personalities. The aim of the study is to historically and epistemologically rebuild their origins within psychiatry and psychoanalysis. METHODS AND RESULTS: From a classical epistemological and historical study, a brief tour is made through the nineteenth century alienism and the postulate of "partial insanity". Next, a passage is spawned through the concepts that emerged from this postulate: "monomania" and "moral insanity", up to mid-century Kraepelin and the "fundamental states" of manic-depressive insanity as pathological constitutional forms or characters, and reaching the twentieth century with characterology and psychopathic personalities. Finally, psychoanalysis is analyzed as the main source of borderline personality disorders arising from the problems encountered in analytical treatments and the development of the notion of "character neurosis". CONCLUSIONS: Borderline personality disorders are the result of the conjunction of a number of factors, heirs of the notion of "partial insanity", of the fundamental states of manic-depression insanity, of characterology, of the idea of constitutions and pathological personalities, together with the emerging concerns of psychoanalysis in the early twentieth century.

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Este artigo analisa historicamente o background ideológico que tornou possível a transformação da noção de melancolia nos conceitos de depressão e transtorno bipolar, a partir das mudanças médicas e psicológicas ocorridas no decorrer do século XIX. A antiga noção de melancolia foi remodelada e sua transição para a doença depressiva foi facilitada pelo conceito de Iipemania de Esquirol, que, pela primeira vez, enfatizou a natureza afetiva primária da doença. Finalmente, uma vez obtidas as condições conceituais necessárias, a melancolia e a mania foram combinadas no conceito de insanidade alternante, periódica, circular, ou de forma dupla, seus rígidos padrões descritivos foram flexibilizados, tendo culminado este processo na sinopse de Kraepelin.

This article historically examines the ideological background that opened the way to the transformation of the notion of melancholia into the concepts of depression and bipolar disorder, based on changes in medicine and psychology during the 19th century. The older notion of melancholia was remodeled and its transition to the concept of depression disorder was facilitated by the concept of lipemania, introduced by Esquirol, who first emphasized the primarily affective nature of the disease. Finally, once the necessary conceptual conditions had been attained, melancholia and mania were merged into the concept of periodic, circular and alternating (or even simultaneous) insanity. Consequently, its strict descriptive standards were relaxed, culminating in Kraepelin's synopsis.

Cet article examine du point de vue historique le contexte idéologique qui a permit la transformation de la notion de mélancolie en concepts de dépression et de trouble bipolaire à partir de l'évolution médicale et psychologique qui a eu lieu au cours du XIX siècle. L'ancienne notion de mélancolie est révisée et sa transformation en notion de maladie dépressive s'opère entre autre grâce au concept de lypémanie d'Esquirol qui a été le premier à souligner le caractère affectif primaire de la maladie. Les conditions conceptuelles nécessaires établies, la mélancolie et la manie sont transformées en concept de la folie alternante, périodique, circulaire, ou double. Ses normes descriptives rigides sont assouplies, ce qui finalement abouti à la synthèse de Kraepelin.

Este artículo analiza históricamente el background ideológico que hizo posible la transformación de la noción de melancolía en los conceptos de depresión y trastorno bipolar, a partir de los cambios médicos y psicológicos ocurridos en el decorrer del siglo XIX. La noción antigua de melancolía fue remodelada y su transición para la enfermedad depresiva fue facilitada por el concepto de lipemania de Esquirol, quien, por primera vez, enfatizó la naturaleza afectiva primaria de la enfermedad. Finalmente, obtenidas las condiciones conceptuales necesarias, la melancolía y la manía fueron combinadas en el concepto de insanidad alternante, periódica, circular, o de forma dupla, sus patrones rígidos descriptivos fueron flexibilizados, culminando este proceso en la sinopsis de Kraepelin.

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Este artigo analisa historicamente o background ideológico que tornou possível a transformação da noção de melancolia nos conceitos de depressão e transtorno bipolar, a partir das mudanças médicas e psicológicas ocorridas no decorrer do século XIX. A antiga noção de melancolia foi remodelada e sua transição para a doença depressiva foi facilitada pelo conceito de Iipemania de Esquirol, que, pela primeira vez, enfatizou a natureza afetiva primária da doença. Finalmente, uma vez obtidas as condições conceituais necessárias, a melancolia e a mania foram combinadas no conceito de insanidade alternante, periódica, circular, ou de forma dupla, seus rígidos padrões descritivos foram flexibilizados, tendo culminado este processo na sinopse de Kraepelin.(AU)

This article historically examines the ideological background that opened the way to the transformation of the notion of melancholia into the concepts of depression and bipolar disorder, based on changes in medicine and psychology during the 19th century. The older notion of melancholia was remodeled and its transition to the concept of depression disorder was facilitated by the concept of lipemania, introduced by Esquirol, who first emphasized the primarily affective nature of the disease. Finally, once the necessary conceptual conditions had been attained, melancholia and mania were merged into the concept of periodic, circular and alternating (or even simultaneous) insanity. Consequently, its strict descriptive standards were relaxed, culminating in Kraepelin's synopsis.(AU)

Cet article examine du point de vue historique le contexte idéologique qui a permit la transformation de la notion de mélancolie en concepts de dépression et de trouble bipolaire à partir de l'évolution médicale et psychologique qui a eu lieu au cours du XIX siècle. L'ancienne notion de mélancolie est révisée et sa transformation en notion de maladie dépressive s'opère entre autre grâce au concept de lypémanie d'Esquirol qui a été le premier à souligner le caractère affectif primaire de la maladie. Les conditions conceptuelles nécessaires établies, la mélancolie et la manie sont transformées en concept de la folie alternante, périodique, circulaire, ou double. Ses normes descriptives rigides sont assouplies, ce qui finalement abouti à la synthèse de Kraepelin.(AU)

Este artículo analiza históricamente el background ideológico que hizo posible la transformación de la noción de melancolía en los conceptos de depresión y trastorno bipolar, a partir de los cambios médicos y psicológicos ocurridos en el decorrer del siglo XIX. La noción antigua de melancolía fue remodelada y su transición para la enfermedad depresiva fue facilitada por el concepto de lipemania de Esquirol, quien, por primera vez, enfatizó la naturaleza afectiva primaria de la enfermedad. Finalmente, obtenidas las condiciones conceptuales necesarias, la melancolía y la manía fueron combinadas en el concepto de insanidad alternante, periódica, circular, o de forma dupla, sus patrones rígidos descriptivos fueron flexibilizados, culminando este proceso en la sinopsis de Kraepelin.(AU)

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Dado el aumento en el diagnostico de bipolaridad, las dificultades de establecer límites entre el ánimo normal y patológico y los riesgos derivados de la indicación de tratamientos inadecuados se presentan aquí antecedentes relativos a la historia y diagnóstico del Trastorno Bipolar así como las principales clasificaciones vigentes y las áreas de conflicto en cuanto a diagnóstico diferencial.

Given the increase diagnosis of bipolarity nowadays, the difficult to clarify the border between normal and pathological mood in this article the historical aspects and clinical features of Bipolar Disorder are reviewed as well as the differential diagnosis.

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A intenção deste ensaio é esboçar a leitura da psicose maníaco-depressiva no Brasil, no começo do século XX. Destaca a transformação teórica ocorrida na psiquiatria brasileira, que se deslocou da tradição francesa para a alemã. Sublinha o modo como a problemática da histeria foi substituída pela da psicose maníaco-depressiva nesse contexto histórico.

This essay examines the early twentieth-century interpretation of manic depressive psychosis in Brazil, during a moment when Brazilian psychiatry witnessed a theoretical shift from the French to German traditions. It calls special attention to how the problem of hysteria was replaced by manic depressive psychosis within this historical context.

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CONTEXTO: Os conceitos de transtornos de humor e de personalidade sofreram diversas mudanças nas últimas décadas. Historicamente, esses conceitos foram construídos em paralelo, isto é, transtornos de humor e personalidade são considerados como transtornos independentes em relação ao diagnóstico, ao prognóstico e ao tratamento. Recentemente, entretanto, novas propostas na conceituação nosológica desses transtornos levantaram a questão de uma possível sobreposição dessas entidades, tornando o diagnóstico diferencial entre esses transtornos muitas vezes difícil. OBJETIVOS: Realizar uma revisão de literatura sobre a evolução dos conceitos de transtorno de humor e personalidade sob uma perspectiva histórica, focando em publicações relacionadas ao diagnóstico. MÉTODO: Revisão compreensiva da literatura utilizando o banco de dados MEDLINE (1990-2007). RESULTADOS: Ao contrário do conceito de transtorno de humor, que se apresenta estável e relativamente sem modificações desde suas primeiras descrições, o conceito de transtorno de personalidade mostra considerável variação ao longo dos diferentes achados de literatura. Assim, ambos os grupos de transtornos têm sido conceituados tanto categorial como dimensionalmente. Esta última abordagem pode ser, em parte, responsável pelas dificuldades algumas vezes encontradas no diagnóstico diferencial desses transtornos. CONCLUSÃO: O diagnóstico diferencial entre transtornos de humor e personalidade ainda representa um sério problema na prática clínica e não pode ser completamente esclarecido com base nas evidências disponíveis. O melhor entendimento da base fisiopatológica desses transtornos, bem como a identificação mais precisa de seus marcadores biológicos, pode ajudar a redefinir seus conceitos e seus status nosológicos atuais.

BACKGROUND: The concepts of mood and personality disorders have faced countless changes over the last decades. Historically, these concepts have been built in parallel, that is, mood and personality disorders have been considered as independent disorders with respect to diagnosis, prognosis and treatment. Recently, however, new proposes on the nosological conceptualization of these disorders have raised the question of a possible overlap between these nosological entities, making the differential diagnosis between these disorders difficult at times. OBJECTIVES: To carry out a literature review on the evolution of mood and personality disorders concepts under a historical perspective, focusing on diagnostic-related issues. METHOD: A comprehensive MEDLINE literature search (1990-2007) was conducted. RESULTS: Contrarily to the concept of mood disorder, which seems to be stable and relatively unchanged since its first description, the concept of personality disorder shows considerable variation over the different literature findings. Thus, both groups of disorders have been conceptualized not only in a categorical point of view but also according to a dimensional approach. The last one may be at least partially accountable for the difficulties sometimes observed in the differential diagnosis of these disorders. DISCUSSION: The differential diagnosis between mood and personality disorders may still represent a serious problem in clinical settings, and can not be completely clarified in light of available evidence. A better understanding of the pathophysiological basis of these disorders, as well as the more accurate identification of their biological markers can help redefining their concepts and their nosological current status.

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Existe una controversia respecto a la independencia nosológica del trastorno límite de personalidad. Algunos autores sostienen que es parte del trastorno bipolar, mientras otros afirman que es una entidad independiente. En este trabajo se analiza la evolución histórica de los conceptos de trastorno límite y trastorno bipolar. Se discuten los argumentos a favor y en contra de incluir el trastorno límite dentro del trastorno bipolar. Por último se proponen nuevas estrategias para abordar este problema.

The independent nosological status of borderline personality disorder is a controversial issue. Some authors consider borderline as part of bipolar spectrum, but other sustain that is a independent entity. The historical evolution of borderline personality disorder and bipolar disorder is analyzed in this work. The arguments for include, or not include, borderline personality disorder in bipolar disorder is discussed. Finally, new strategies for study this problem are proposed.

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The way that the sanitary concept impacted the bipolar disorders has oscillated noticeably in the last years. At the beginning of the XX century they were considered a fundamental part of the structure of clinical psychiatry, disabling and more frequent then schizophrenias. Concomitantly to the insertion of the use of the antiseptics in the fifties they start to enter the shadows of the interest of clinicians and investigators at the same time that the concept of them is changed understanding that in the majority of cases they are benign and with little functional impact. In the last twenty years this situation changes yet again getting more attention and rediscovering that more then half of the people affected by it suffer a strong functional impact. None the less, in this conceptual back and forth, the enormous heterogeneity that these cases have has been lost which permit that an appreciable percentage of affected people have an optimal performance or even above average. In this article we explore the conceptual alternatives and also some models that take into account this heterogenety.

El modo en que se conceptuó el impacto sanitario de los Trastornos Bipolares ha oscilado llamativamente en los últimos años. A principio del siglo XX eran considerados parte fundamental de la estructura clínica psiquiátrica, disabilitantes y más frecuentes que las esquizofrenias. Concomitantemente a la inserción del uso de los antipsicóticos en la década del 50 comienzan a entrar en un cono de sombra en el interés de clínicos e investigadores al mismo tiempo que se cambia el concepto sobre ellos al entenderse de que en la mayoría de los casos se trata de cuadros benignos y con poco impacto funcional. En los últimos 20 años esta situación vuelve a cambiar al prestársele más atención a estos cuadros y redescubrir el hecho de que más de la mitad de las personas afectadas por ellos sufren un fuerte impacto funcional. Sin embargo, en este vaivén conceptual se ha ido perdiendo de vista la enorme heterogeneidad que tienen estos cuadros la cual permite que un porcentaje nada despreciable de personas afectadas tengan un rendimiento óptimo o incluso mayor al de la media. En este artículo se revisan estas alternancias conceptuales y se revisan algunos modelos que tienen en cuenta esta heterogeneidad.

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