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BACKGROUND: The aims of this study were to identify the source and the transmission pathway for a Staphylococcal Scalded Skin Syndrome (SSSS) outbreak in a maternity setting in Italy over 2 months, during 2014; to implement appropriate control measures in order to prevent the epidemic spread within the maternity ward; and to identify the Methicillin-Resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA) epidemic clone. METHODS: Epidemiological and microbiological investigations, based on phenotyping and genotyping methods, were performed. All neonates involved in the outbreak underwent clinical and microbiological investigations to detect the cause of illness. Parents and healthcare workers were screened for Staphylococcus aureus to identify asymptomatic carriers. RESULTS: The SSSS outbreak was due to the cross-transmission of a rare clone of ST5-CA-MRSA-SCCmecV-spa type t311, exfoliative toxin A-producer, isolated from three neonates, one mother (from her nose and from dermatological lesions due to pre-existing hand eczema) and from a nurse (colonized in her nose by this microorganism). The epidemiological and microbiological investigation confirmed these as two potential carriers. CONCLUSIONS: A rapid containment of these infections was obtained only after implementation of robust swabbing of mothers and healthcare workers. The use of molecular methodologies for typing was able to identify all carriers and to trace the transmission.

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One of the severe adverse effects of intra-articular injection in the knee is septic arthritis of the knee joint. Staphylococcus aureus is the most frequent pathogen of septic arthritis. Staphylococcal scalded skin syndrome (SSSS) refers to a spectrum of blistering skin diseases caused by S. aureus exfoliative toxins. Although SSSS is rarely observed in adults, the mortality rate is high in adult cases. We report a case of SSSS due to septic knee arthritis after intra-articular hyaluronic acid injections.

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BACKGROUND: The pathogenic role of nasal carriage as a source for cutaneous and soft-tissue Staphylococcus aureus (SA) infections, and Staphylococcal scalded skin syndrome (SSSS) in particular, is unclear. OBSERVATION: We herein describe a nosocomial outbreak of SSSS in three orthopaedic patients who received intra-articular injections by a single orthopaedic surgeon. Bacteriological samples from the index patients and medical personnel involved in their care were assessed by phage typing, polymerase chain reaction for exfoliative toxin genes, SmaI macro-restriction analysis and molecular spa-typing. These studies first revealed SA cultural growth in synovial fluid of all three patients as well as nasal mucosa of one medical assistant. Moreover, all SA isolates had the same phage typing and antibiotic susceptibilities and were positive for exfoliative toxin ETa by polymerase chain reaction. SmaI macro-restriction and spa-typing further confirmed all proband isolates to be identical. CONCLUSION: These findings provide evidence that SA nasal colonization of otherwise healthy carriers is a risk factor for SA infections, including SSSS, in predisposed individuals.

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Staphylococcal scalded skin syndrome (SSSS) is a toxin-mediated exfoliating skin condition predominated by desquamation and blistering. Neonatal outbreaks have already been reported; however, our outbreak highlights the potential for SSSS following neonatal health promotion measures such as intra-muscular vitamin K administration and metabolic screening (heel prick) as well as effective case containment measures and the value of staff screening. Between February and June 2007, five confirmed cases of neonatal SSSS were identified in full-term neonates born in an Irish regional maternity hospital. All infants were treated successfully. Analysis of contact and environmental screening was undertaken, including family members and healthcare workers. Molecular typing on isolates was carried out. An outbreak control team (OCT) was assembled and took successful prospective steps to prevent further cases. All five Staphylococcus aureus isolates tested positive for exfoliative toxin A, of which two distinct strains were identified on pulsed-field gel electrophoresis analysis. Two cases followed staphylococcal inoculation during preventive measures such as intra-muscular vitamin K administration and metabolic screening (heel prick). None of the neonatal isolates were methicillin resistant. Of 259 hospital staff (70% of staff) screened, 30% were colonised with S. aureus, and 6% were positive for MRSA carriage. This is the first reported outbreak of neonatal SSSS in Ireland. Effective case containment measures and clinical value of OCT is demonstrated. Results of staff screening underlines the need for vigilance and compliance in hand disinfection strategies in maternity hospitals especially during neonatal screening and preventive procedures.

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We report two consecutive cases of staphylococcal scalded skin syndrome (SSSS) in our neonatal intensive care unit (NICU). Methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA) was isolated from skin swabs. An epidemiological survey conducted on the NICU staff, isolated MRSA from nasal swabs of three personnel. Gene analysis of these five isolates using pulsed-field gel electrophoresis (PFGE) of the bacterial genome and polymerase chain reaction (PCR) for a panel of toxin genes encoded two patient-derived isolates of exfoliative toxin B (ETB) considered to be identical based on the spectrum of toxin genes encoded and PFGE patterns. Three staff-derived isolates did not, however, encode ETB and showed different repertoires of toxin genes and PFGE patterns from those of the two patient-derived isolates. Nasal application of mupirocin to all carriers successfully eradicated MRSA. Horizontal transmission of ETB-producing MRSA between the two patients in the NICU was confirmed, but no NICU personnel carried the same isolate. We therefore wish to emphasize the importance of strict standard and contact precautionary measures and the monitoring of MRSA in the NICU, together with the usefulness of gene analysis using PFGE and PCR as epidemiological tools.

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INTRODUCTION: The staphylococcal scalded skin syndrome (SSSS) is due to exfoliative toxins A or B excreted by some strains of Staphylococcus aureus. This syndrome is exceptional in the first hours of life. We report a case of SSSS due to materno-fetal infection. CASE REPORT: At 31 weeks of pregnancy a 40-year-old mother was febrile (39 degrees C) and a premature rupture of the amniotic sac occurred the following day. SSSS was diagnosed at 6 hours of life in the newborn, a 1760 g female. Staphylococcus aureus grew on the blood and vaginal bacterial cultures of the mother, as well as, from cultures of skin, nose, throat, and umbilical catheter in the newborn. The strains of Staphylococcus aureus isolated in the mother and the child had identical characteristic antibiotype and genotype by Random-PCR. The genes for both exfoliations A and B were present. Epidermization was rapidly obtained and no septicemia or septic complication was noted. DISCUSSION: Staphylococcus aureus is usually responsible for nosocomial infections which occur in the early newborn period. In most cases, the infection is transmitted by a carrier who manipulates the child (family, visitors, nurse or medical staff). In our case, onset of SSSS early after birth suggested a perinatal transmission, due to lower genital tract infection in the mother. The presence of SSSS in the child and not in the mother may be explained by a massive perinatal infection and low elimination of the toxin in the newborn resulting in higher concentrations of exfoliative toxins in the blood.

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BACKGROUND: Outbreaks of nosocomial staphylococcal scalded skin syndrome (SSSS) in infants have been well-described associated with the well baby nursery or delivery room. We describe two cases of SSSS in very low birth weight infants in a neonatal intensive care unit (NICU) and the success of infection control strategies used to prevent an outbreak. METHODS: Staphylococcal scalded skin syndrome was diagnosed in two infants in the NICU: Case I (a 47-day-old, formerly 530-g female); and Case II diagnosed 48 h later (a 41-day old, formerly 706-g female). Multiple infection control measures were implemented: (1) isolation and intravenous antibiotic treatment of cases; (2) placement of exposed infants into a cohort; (3) prophylactic mupirocin treatment of the anterior nares of all infants in the NICU and staff colonized with Staphylococcus aureus; and (4) personnel hand washing with hexachlorophene. Detection of exfoliative toxin A and studies to determine the genetic relatedness of S. aureus strains isolated from patients and staff were performed. RESULTS: In addition to the two SSSS cases, S. aureus was isolated from 2 of 12 (17%) exposed asymptomatic infants, 2 of 20 (10%) ancillary staff, 8 of 30 (27%) nurses and 6 of 24 (25%) physicians. Exfoliative toxin A-producing strains were isolated from both cases and one asymptomatic infant. No toxin was expressed by strains isolated from staff. Pulse field gel electrophoresis demonstrated genetically identical strains of S. aureus from the two SSSS cases and the asymptomatic infant, whereas three staff members harbored strains genetically related to the case strain. Unexpectedly two additional unique clusters of genetically related S. aureus strains were identified from the surveillance cultures. CONCLUSIONS: This report documents the rare occurrence of nosocomial SSSS attributed to transmission in the NICU among extremely low birth weight infants. Multiple infection control strategies were effective in limiting the outbreak. Molecular epidemiology investigation supported a unique S. aureus strain responsible for this event and the presence of bidirectional spread between staff and patients of non-toxin-producing strains.

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A case of staphylococcal scalded skin syndrome in a neonate caused by mother-to-child transmission through breast-feeding is reported. Staphylococcus aureus isolates from mother and child were identified using random-amplified polymorphic DNA analysis, which is a simple and rapid method for comparing strains. This study confirms the need to avoid breast-feeding in cases of breast abscess.

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