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Adaptive stress resistance in microbes is mostly attributed to the expression of stress response genes, including heat-shock proteins. Here, we report a response of E. coli to heat stress caused by degradation of an enzyme in the methionine biosynthesis pathway (MetA). While MetA degradation can inhibit growth, which by itself is detrimental for fitness, we show that it directly benefits survival at temperatures exceeding 50°C, increasing survival chances by more than 1,000-fold. Using both experiments and mathematical modeling, we show quantitatively how protein expression, degradation rates, and environmental stressors cause long-term growth inhibition in otherwise habitable conditions. Because growth inhibition can be abolished with simple mutations, namely point mutations of MetA and protease knockouts, we interpret the breakdown of methionine synthesis as a system that has evolved to halt growth at high temperatures, analogous to "thermal fuses" in engineering that shut off electricity to prevent overheating.

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Methionine is an essential amino acid in all living organisms and has been used in various industrial applications such as food and feed additives. However, inhibition of enzymes involved in methionine biosynthesis is considered to be a crucial bottleneck for an efficient bio-based methionine production process. Homoserine O-succinyltransferase fromEscherichia coli (EcHST) has been reported to be feedback inhibited by the final product methionine. To understand the regulation mechanism of the enzyme and generate a feedback-resistant mutant, we determined the crystal structure of EcHST and elucidated the binding site of homoserine and succinyl-CoA. The enzyme kinetic experiments of EcHST revealed that the enzyme is noncompetitively inhibited by methionine with a Ki value of 2.44 mM, and we also identified a putative inhibitor binding site located in the vicinity of the substrate binding site. We then generated the EcHSTT242A variant with reduced feedback inhibition with a Ki value of 17.40 mM.

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Multiple sequence alignment of homoserine-acetyltransferases, serine-acetyltransferases and homoserine-succinyltransferases show they all belong to MetX family, having evolved from a common ancestor by conserving the catalytic site and substrate binding residues. The discrimination in the substrate selection arises due to the presence of substrate-specific residues lining the substrate-binding pocket. Mutation of Ala59 and Gly62 to Gly and Pro respectively in homoserine-acetyltransferase from M. tuberculosis resulted in a serine-acetyltransferase like enzyme as it acetylated both l-homoserine and l-serine. Homoserine-acetyltransferase from M. tuberculosis when mutated at positon 322 where Leu was converted to Arg, resulted in succinylation over acetylation of l-homoserine. Our studies establish the importance of the substrate binding residues in determining the type of activity possessed by MetX family, despite all of them having the same catalytic triad Ser-Asp-His. Hence key residues at the substrate binding pocket dictate whether the given enzyme shows predominant transferase or hydrolase activity.

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l-Methionine biosynthesis in Eschericha coli consists of multiple unit modules with various enzymes involved and the imbalance between different modules always restricted its productivity. In this study, the key enzymes participating in the pathway were investigated for their effect on l-methionine production and the pivotal enzyme homoserine O-succinyltransferase (MetA) was designed to be regulated. The surface amino acid residues of MetA were effectively modified through site-saturation mutagenesis and single mutants L63F, A28V, P298L and double mutant L63F/A28V were obtained with improved l-methionine productivity. The structure analysis revealed that the involved residues were on the surface loop regions, which was proposed to be conducive to the refolding of MetA and thus reduce the inhibition effect caused by l-methionine. After expression of the selected single mutant L63F in engineered E. coli ΔIJA-HFEBC strain with l-methionine efflux pump and mutated 3-phosphoglycerate dehydrogenase, the l-methionine production was significantly improved, with a final yield of 3528 mg/L. The results demonstrated the efficiency of MetA regulation for enhanced production of l-methionine and meanwhile provided important guidance for further engineering of MetA with increased l-methionine productivity.

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A p-isothiocyanate phenylalanine mutant of the homodimeric protein homoserine o-succinyltransferase (MetA) was isolated in a temperature dependent selection from a library of metA mutants containing noncanonical amino acids. This mutant protein has a dramatic increase of 24 °C in thermal stability compared to the wild type protein. Peptide mapping experiments revealed that the isothiocyanate group forms a thiourea cross-link to the N terminal proline of the other monomer, despite the two positions being >30 Å apart in the X-ray crystal structure of the wild type protein. These results show that an expanded set of building blocks beyond the canonical 20 amino acids can lead to significant changes in the properties of proteins.

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The ability to add noncanonical amino acids to the genetic code may allow one to evolve proteins with new or enhanced properties using a larger set of building blocks. To this end, we have been able to select mutant proteins with enhanced thermal properties from a library of E. coli homoserine O-succinyltransferase ( metA) mutants containing randomly incorporated noncanonical amino acids. Here, we show that substitution of Phe 21 with ( p-benzoylphenyl)alanine (pBzF), increases the melting temperature of E. coli metA by 21 °C. This dramatic increase in thermal stability, arising from a single mutation, likely results from a covalent adduct between Cys 90 and the keto group of pBzF that stabilizes the dimeric form of the enzyme. These experiments show that an expanded genetic code can provide unique solutions to the evolution of proteins with enhanced properties.

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Microbes often engage in cooperation through releasing biosynthetic compounds required by other species to grow. Given that production of costly biosynthetic metabolites is generally subjected to multiple layers of negative feedback, single mutations may frequently be insufficient to generate cooperative phenotypes. Synergistic epistatic interactions between multiple coordinated changes may thus often underlie the evolution of cooperation through overproduction of metabolites. To test the importance of synergistic mutations in cooperation we used an engineered bacterial consortium of an Escherichia coli methionine auxotroph and Salmonella enterica. S. enterica relies on carbon by-products from E. coli if lactose is the only carbon source. Directly selecting wild-type S. enterica in an environment that favored cooperation through secretion of methionine only once led to a methionine producer, and this producer both took a long time to emerge and was not very effective at cooperating. On the other hand, when an initial selection for resistance of S. enterica to a toxic methionine analog, ethionine, was used, subsequent selection for cooperation with E. coli was rapid, and the resulting double mutants were much more effective at cooperation. We found that potentiating mutations in metJ increase expression of metA, which encodes the first step of methionine biosynthesis. This increase in expression is required for the previously identified actualizing mutations in metA to generate cooperation. This work highlights that where biosynthesis of metabolites involves multiple layers of regulation, significant secretion of those metabolites may require multiple mutations, thereby constraining the evolution of cooperation.

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Bacterial persisters are a small subpopulation of cells that exhibit multi-drug tolerance without genetic changes. Generally, persistence is associated with a dormant state in which the microbial cells are metabolically inactive. The bacterial response to unfavorable environmental conditions (heat, oxidative, acidic stress) induces the accumulation of aggregated proteins and enhances formation of persister cells in Escherichia coli cultures. We have found that methionine supplementation reduced the frequency of persisters at mild (37°C) and elevated (42°C) temperatures, as well as in the presence of acetate. Homoserine-o-succinyltransferase (MetA), the first enzyme in the methionine biosynthetic pathway, is prone to aggregation under many stress conditions, resulting in a methionine limitation in E. coli growth. Overexpression of MetA induced the greatest number of persisters at 42°C, which is correlated to an increased level of aggregated MetA. Substitution of the native metA gene on the E. coli K-12 WE chromosome by a mutant gene encoding the stabilized MetA led to reduction in persisters at the elevated temperature and in the presence of acetate, as well as lower aggregation of the mutated MetA. Decreased persister formation at 42°C was confirmed also in E. coli K-12 W3110 and a fast-growing WErph+ mutant harboring the stabilized MetA. Thus, this is the first study to demonstrate manipulation of persister frequency under stressful conditions by stabilization of a single aggregation-prone protein, MetA.

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BACKGROUND: The growth of Escherichia coli at elevated temperatures is limited due to the inherent instability of homoserine o-succinyltransferase, MetA, which is the first enzyme in the methionine biosynthesis pathway. MetA is also unstable under other stressful conditions, such as weak organic acids and oxidative stress. The MetA protein unfolds, even at 25°C, forms considerable aggregates at 37°C and completely aggregates at 44°C. RESULTS: We extended the MetA mutation studies using a consensus concept based on statistics and sequence database analysis to predict the point mutations resulting in increased MetA stability. In this study, four single amino acid substitutions (Q96K, I124L, I229Y and F247Y) in MetA designed according to the consensus concept and using the I-mutant2.0 modeling tool conferred accelerated growth on the E. coli strain WE at 44°C. MetA mutants that enabled E. coli growth at higher temperatures did not display increased melting temperatures (Tm) or enhanced catalytic activity but did show improved in vivo stability at mild (37°C) and elevated (44°C) temperatures. Notably, we observed that the stabilized MetA mutants partially recovered the growth defects of E. coli mutants in which ATP-dependent proteases or the DnaK chaperone was deleted. These results suggest that the impaired growth of these E. coli mutants primarily reflect the inherent instability of MetA and, thus, the methionine supply. As further evidence, the addition of methionine recovered most of the growth defects in mutants lacking either ATP-dependent proteases or the DnaK chaperone. CONCLUSIONS: A collection of stable single-residue mutated MetA enzymes were constructed and investigated as background for engineering the stabilized mutants. In summary, the mutations in a single gene, metA, reframe the window of growth temperature in both normal and mutant E. coli strains.

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Here we characterize the first step in methionine biosynthesis in Agrobacterium tumefaciens, an α-proteobacterium. We explored the metA gene and its products and found several unique properties. Although the gene was annotated as a homoserine transsuccinylase, based upon sequence similarity to characterized homologs in other bacteria, including Escherichia coli, the enzyme uses acetyl-CoA as a substrate and therefore is functionally a transacetylase. Moreover, the protein is thermolabile and the gene is under regulation of heat shock transcriptional activator σ32. 3. The gene has a SAM-riboswitch, which shuts off transcription by σ-32 as well as by the vegetative σ-70.

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Aggregation of proteins due to failure of quality control mechanisms is deleterious to both eukaryotes and prokaryotes. We found that in Escherichia coli, protein aggregates are delivered to the pole and form a large polar aggregate (LPA). The formation of LPAs involves two steps: the formation of multiple small aggregates and the delivery of these aggregates to the pole to form an LPA. Formation of randomly distributed aggregates, their delivery to the poles, and LPA formation are all energy-dependent processes. The latter steps require the proton motive force, activities of the DnaK and DnaJ chaperones, and MreB. About 90 min after their formation, the LPAs are dissolved in a process that is dependent upon ClpB, DnaK, and energy. Our results confirm and substantiate the notion that the formation of LPAs allows asymmetric inheritance of the aggregated proteins to a small number of daughter cells, enabling their rapid elimination from most of the bacterial population. Moreover, the results show that the processing of aggregated proteins by the protein quality control system is a multi-step process with distinct spatial and temporal controls.

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In Escherichia coli, growth is limited at elevated temperatures mainly because of the instability of a single enzyme, homoserine o-succinyltransferase (MetA), the first enzyme in the methionine biosynthesis pathway. The metA gene from the thermophile Geobacillus kaustophilus cloned into the E. coli chromosome was found to enhance the growth of the host strain at elevated temperature (44 degrees C), thus confirming the limited growth of E. coli due to MetA instability. In order to improve E. coli growth at higher temperatures, we used random mutagenesis to obtain a thermostable MetA(E. coli) protein. Sequencing of the thermotolerant mutant showed five amino acid substitutions: S61T, E213V, I229T, N267D, and N271K. An E. coli strain with the mutated metA gene chromosomally inserted showed accelerated growth over a temperature range of 34 to 44 degrees C. We used the site-directed metA mutants to identify two amino acid residues responsible for the sensitivity of MetA(E. coli) to both heat and acids. Replacement of isoleucine 229 with threonine and asparagine 267 with aspartic acid stabilized the protein. The thermostable MetA(E. coli) enzymes showed less aggregation in vivo at higher temperature, as well as upon acetic acid treatment. The data presented here are the first to show improved E. coli growth at higher temperatures solely due to MetA stabilization and provide new knowledge for designing E. coli strains that grow at higher temperatures, thus reducing the cooling cost of bioprocesses.

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Bacteria and yeast rely on either homoserine transsuccinylase (HTS, metA) or homoserine transacetylase (HTA; met2) for the biosynthesis of methionine. Although HTS and HTA catalyze similar chemical reactions, these proteins are typically unrelated in both sequence and three-dimensional structure. Here we present the 2.0 A resolution x-ray crystal structure of the Bacillus cereus metA protein in complex with homoserine, which provides the first view of a ligand bound to either HTA or HTS. Surprisingly, functional analysis of the B. cereus metA protein shows that it does not use succinyl-CoA as a substrate. Instead, the protein catalyzes the transacetylation of homoserine using acetyl-CoA. Therefore, the B. cereus metA protein functions as an HTA despite greater than 50% sequence identity with bona fide HTS proteins. This result emphasizes the need for functional confirmation of annotations of enzyme function based on either sequence or structural comparisons. Kinetic analysis of site-directed mutants reveals that the B. cereus metA protein and the E. coli HTS share a common catalytic mechanism. Structural and functional examination of the B. cereus metA protein reveals that a single amino acid in the active site determines acetyl-CoA (Glu-111) versus succinyl-CoA (Gly-111) specificity in the metA-like of acyltransferases. Switching of this residue provides a mechanism for evolving substrate specificity in bacterial methionine biosynthesis. Within this enzyme family, HTS and HTA activity likely arises from divergent evolution in a common structural scaffold with conserved catalytic machinery and homoserine binding sites.

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Substrate specificity within the family of enzymes designated as homoserine transsuccinylases is variable, with some organisms utilizing succinyl-CoA and other organisms utilizing acetyl-CoA. In this study it is shown that the enzyme from Bacillus cereus uses acetyl-CoA as its acyl donor, but its catalytic rate is significantly lower than other HTS family members. BcHTS is inactivated by both iodoacetamide and diethyl pyrocarbonate and the enzyme can be partially protected from inactivation by the presence of succinyl-CoA. This leads to the conclusion that BcHTS can bind both acetyl-CoA and succinyl-CoA and suggests that it may represent an intermediate between the succinate-transferring HTS family members and the acetate-transferring HTS family members. The B. cereus enzyme was unable to rescue growth of an Escherichia coli strain lacking a functional transsuccinylase, however.

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Protein quality control, mediated by chaperones and ATP-dependent proteases, is essential for maintaining balanced growth and for regulating critical processes. To study these systems it is necessary to have model substrate proteins. However, most cellular proteins are stable and the few unstable proteins are usually regulatory and present in low concentrations, making them unsuitable for studies, especially in vivo. We present HTS(Delta1-6), a truncated homoserine trans-succinylase (HTS) which is unstable, can be expressed at high levels and has an enzymatic, measurable, activity. This protein can serve as a good model substrate for Escherichia coli ATP-dependent proteolysis.

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Homoserine acyltransferases catalyze the commitment step to methionine and other important biological precursors which make this class of enzymes essential for the survival of bacteria, plants and fungi. This class of enzymes is not found in humans, making them an attractive new target for antimicrobial design. Homoserine O-succinyltransferase (HST) is a representative from this class, with little known about the key amino acids involved in substrate specificity and catalysis. HST from Escherichia coli has been cloned, purified and kinetically characterized. Through site-directed mutagenesis and steady-state kinetic studies the residues that comprise a catalytic triad for HST, the catalytic cysteine nucleophile, an active site acid-base histidine, and the base orienting glutamate, have been identified and characterized. Several residues which confer substrate specificity for both homoserine and succinyl-CoA have also been identified and kinetically evaluated. Mutations of an active site glutamate to either aspartate or alanine drastically increase the K(m) for homoserine, assigning this glutamate to a binding role for the alpha-amino group of homoserine. An active site arginine orients the carboxyl moiety of homoserine, while the carboxyl moiety of succinyl-CoA is positioned for catalysis by a lysine residue. Removing functionality at either of these positions alters the enzyme's ability to effectively utilize homoserine or succinyl-CoA, respectively, reflected in an increased K(m) and decreased catalytic efficiency. The data presented here provides new details of the catalytic mechanism of succinyltransferases, resolves a controversy between alternative mechanistic hypotheses, and provides a starting point for the development of selective inhibitors of HST.

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Homoserine transsuccinylase catalyzes the succinylation of homoserine in several bacterial species, the first unique step in methionine biosynthesis in these organisms. The enzyme from Escherichia coli is reported to be a dimer and uses a ping-pong catalytic mechanism involving transfer of succinate from succinyl-CoA to an enzyme nucleophile, followed by transfer to homoserine to form O-succinylhomoserine. Site-directed mutagenesis and steady-state kinetics were used to identify three amino acids that participate in catalysis. Mutation of cysteine-142 to serine or alanine eliminated all measurable activity, suggesting this amino acid acts as the catalytic nucleophile. Cysteine nucleophiles are often deprotonated by histidine residues, and histidine-235 was identified as the sole absolutely conserved histidine residue among family members. This residue was mutated to both alanine and asparagine, and no activity was observed with either mutant. Lysine-47 had been previously identified as an essential residue. Mutation of this amino acid to arginine reduced catalytic activity by greater than 90%, while mutation to alanine yielded an enzyme with <1% of wild-type activity. A pH-rate profile of the K47R mutant demonstrated that this amino acid participates in the first half reaction. The data presented here provide the first detailed description of the homoserine transsuccinylase active site and provide a framework for additional mechanistic characterization of this enzyme.

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The methionine biosynthetic pathway found in bacteria is controlled at the first step, acylation of the gamma-hydroxyl of homoserine. This reaction is catalyzed by one of two unique enzymes, homoserine transacetylase or homoserine transsuccinylase, which have no amino acid sequence similarity. We cloned, expressed, and purified homoserine transsuccinylase from the thermophilic bacterium Thermotoga maritima. Substrate specificity experiments demonstrated that acetyl-coenzyme A (CoA) is the preferred acyl donor and is used at least 30-fold more efficiently than succinyl-CoA. Steady-state kinetic experiments confirm that the enzyme utilizes a ping-pong kinetic mechanism in which the acetate group of acetyl-CoA is initially transferred to an enzyme nucleophile before subsequent transfer to homoserine. The maximal velocity, V/K (acetyl-CoA) and V/K (homoserine), all exhibited bell-shaped pH curves with apparent pKs of 6.0-6.9 and 8.2-8.8. The enzyme was inactivated by iodoacetamide in a pH-dependent manner, with an apparent pK of 6.3, suggesting the presence of an active-site cysteine residue which forms an acetyl-enzyme thioester intermediate during catalytic turnover, similar to observations with other transsuccinylases. In addition, the enzyme is highly stable at elevated temperatures, maintaining full activity at 70 degrees C. Taken together, these data suggest that the T. maritima enzyme functions biochemically as a transacetylase, despite having the sequence of a transsuccinylase.

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Several regulators of methionine biosynthesis have been reported in Escherichia coli, which might represent barriers to the production of excess l-methionine (Met). In order to examine the effects of these factors on Met biosynthesis and metabolism, deletion mutations of the methionine repressor (metJ) and threonine biosynthetic (thrBC) genes were introduced into the W3110 wild-type strain of E. coli. Mutations of the metK gene encoding S-adenosylmethionine synthetase, which is involved in Met metabolism, were detected in 12 norleucine-resistant mutants. Three of the mutations in the metK structural gene were then introduced into metJ and thrBC double-mutant strains; one of the resultant strains was found to accumulate 0.13 g/liter Met. Mutations of the metA gene encoding homoserine succinyltransferase were detected in alpha-methylmethionine-resistant mutants, and these mutations were found to encode feedback-resistant enzymes in a 14C-labeled homoserine assay. Three metA mutations were introduced, using expression plasmids, into an E. coli strain that was shown to accumulate 0.24 g/liter Met. Combining mutations that affect the deregulation of Met biosynthesis and metabolism is therefore an effective approach for the production of Met-excreting strains.

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