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In 1348, a pandemic known as Black Death devastated humanity and changed social, economic and geopolitical world order, as is the current case with SARS-CoV-2 coronavirus. The doctor of the Nasrid Kingdom of Granada, Ibn-Jatima from Almeria, wrote "Treatise on the Plague", in which it may be found epidemiological and clinical similarities between both plagues. In the context of Greco-Arab medicine, he discovered respiratory and contact contagion of Pestis and attributed its physiopathology to a lack of pulmonary cooling of the innate heat, generated in the heart and carried by the blood humor. The process described was equivalent to the oxygen transport system. Furthermore, it was supposed to generate toxic residues, such as free radicals, leading to an irreversible multiple organ failure (MOF), considered a mortality factor as in Covid-19. Due to its similitude, it would be the first antecedent of the MOF physiopathological concept, a finding that enriches the scientific and historical heritage of our clinical specialty.

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The taking of blood for diagnostic purposes is a frequent cause of difficulty for physicians. In patients with intact visible or palpable large veins, such as those often seen in the antecubital fossa, a needle or cannula entering from any direction will usually be rewarded with any quantity of blood. In smaller veins in less convenient locations, such as in the hand, the direction of the needle becomes much more important. Failure to take blood is very commonly because of failure to appreciate the direction of flow of venous blood up the arm, and the ubiquitous presence of valves in the veins, both aspects of the circulation clearly described by William Harvey nearly 4 centuries ago. This paper encourages more frequent success with phlebotomy by remembering Harvey's work and pointing the needle in the right direction; this is not always towards the heart.

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The common opinion is that in Europe acupuncture was introduced in China at the end of the XVII century. However there are some publications, which describe the similar treatment method in the Stone Age Europe. From ancient to late middle century theoretical and practical aspects of medieval medicine in Europe were very similar to the Tradition Chinese medicine. So it is possible that historical phlebotomy in Europe (bloodletting) played the same role as the acupuncture in the Chinese therapy and they had one scientific source. In this article we are comparing the modern acupuncture with some Bohemian medical tractates (Practica medicinalis by Sigismundus Albicus from 1408-1424, De sanguinis minucione by Cristannus de Prachaticz from 1430). We can see the close relationship between localizations and indications of medieval phlebotomy and modern acupuncture points. 40% of the bloodletting points have close localization with the modern acupuncture points and 57% of their indications are common or very similar. The similarity of two methods may be explained in two ways. First is a common scientific source and intensive interaction and crosscultural transmission of knowledge during medical development in China and Europe up to the beginning of the XV century. This possibility indicates also some linguistic coincidences. On the other hand, both methods could have been developed separately based on common clinical empire and objective neuro-physiological patterns of human body.

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INTRODUCTION: Therapeutic bloodletting has been practiced at least 3000 years as one of the most frequent methods of treatment in general, whose value was not questioned until the 19th century, when it was gradually abandoned in Western medicine, while it is still practiced in Arabic and traditional Chinese medicine. CONTENT: In modern medicine bloodletting is practiced for very few indications. Its concept was modeled on the process of menstrual bleeding, for which it was believed to"purge women of bad humours. "Thus, bloodletting was based more on the belief that it helps in the reestablishment of proper balance of body "humours" than on the opinion that it serves to remove excessive amount of blood as well as to remove toxic "pneumas" that accumulate in human body. It was indicated for almost all known diseases, even in the presence of severe anemia. Bloodletting was carried out by scarification with cupping, by phlebotomies (venesections), rarely by arteriotomies, using specific instruments called lancets, as well as leeches. In different periods of history bloodletting was practiced by priests, doctors, barbers, and even by amateurs. In most cases, between one half of liter and two liters of blood used to be removed. Bloodletting was harmful to vast majority of patients and in some of them it is believed that it was either fatal or that it strongly contributed to such outcome. In the 20th century in the "Western"medicine bloodletting was still practiced in the treatment of hypertension and in severe cardiac insufficiency and pulmonary edema, but these indications were later abandoned. CONCLUSION: Bloodletting is still indicated for a few indications such as polycythemia, haemochromatosis, and porphyria cutanea tarda, while leeches are still used in plastic surgery, replantation and other reconstructive surgery, and very rarely for other specific indications.

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The topic of this study are representations of lancet or phlebotome in frescoes and icons of Serbian medieval art. The very presence of this medical instrument in Serbian medieval art indicates its usage in Serbian medical practices of the time. Phlebotomy is one of the oldest forms of therapy, widely spread in medieval times. It is also mentioned in Serbian medical texts, such as Chilandar Medical CodexNo. 517 and Hodoch code, i.e. translations from Latin texts originating from Salerno-Montpellier school. Lancet or phlebotome is identified based on archaeological finds from the Roman period, while finds from the Middle Ages and especially from Byzantium have been scarce. Analyses of preserved frescoes and icons has shown that, in comparison to other medical instruments, lancet is indeed predominant in Serbian medieval art, and that it makes for over 80% of all the representations, while other instruments have been depicted to a far lesser degree. Examination of written records and art points to the conclusion that Serbian medieval medicine, both in theory and in practice, belonged entirely to European traditions of the period.

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INTRODUCTION: Dr. Nathaniel Alcock in his book A treatise on cholera described 22 cases of cholera that he treated in 1832. Blood-letting, either by leeches or venesection, was an essential part of the treatment. RATIONALE: The belief was that reducing the blood volume would relieve stress on the heart and lungs allowing for better function. The receipts of the Townsend Street Cholera Hospital where Dr. Alcock worked show how extensive the practice was. Outside Dublin, local Boards of Health dealt with the cholera epidemic. Various public measures such as street cleaning and removal of patients to temporary hospitals were undertaken and various cures were tried. OUTCOME: The overall mortality rate from cholera in Ireland during the epidemic was 38 %, but in some areas much higher. CONCLUSION: Even as cholera was spreading in the 1830s, a number of doctors were showing that intravenous fluids could dramatically alter the course of the disease. Unfortunately, their work was ignored and blood-letting continued to be a major component of the treatment of cholera for another 55 years.

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In the United States, phlebotomies are most often performed for reinfusion of blood to a designated or nondesignated recipient at a later time. These are known, respectively, as autologous or allogenic donations. For a few rare blood disorders, however, phlebotomy is performed as a medical intervention for disease management. These are referred to as therapeutic phlebotomies. Four classifications of blood disorders are discussed here for which symptoms and complications can be managed by the use of therapeutic phlebotomy. The article also offers considerations for setting up a therapeutic phlebotomy program.

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Laboratory testing is an integral part of the decision-making process, and results of laboratory testing often strongly influence medical diagnoses and therapies. There is a long history of quality requirements in laboratory medicine, which have mainly concerned the analytic phase of this process. Owing to the substantial advances in technology, laboratory automation and analytic quality, there is increasing evidence that further quality improvements should be targeted to extra-analytic phases of laboratory testing. Objective difficulties to monitor most of the preanalytic variables which lie outside the direct control or supervision of the laboratory personnel, such as phlebotomy, call for effective educational and preventive policies. Owing to high personnel turnover rates, lack of understanding about good laboratory practices, and inadequate training, there are several opportunities for making errors during phlebotomy, which mainly concern patient misidentification and collection of unsuitable specimens for testing due to unsuited venous accesses, venous stasis, inappropriate collection devices and containers. Improved standardization of phlebotomy techniques, along with operative guidelines dissemination, continuous education, certification, and training of health care professionals involved in blood drawing responsibilities would enhance the chance of obtaining specimens of consistent quality, with favorable revenues for the health care system and the patient's outcome.

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The term polycythemia (literally, "many blood cell disease") and its obsolete synonym, erythremia, postdate Robert Hooke's 17th century discovery of cells, but the concept of a clinically problematic excess of blood was formulated in antiquity. Observation of plethoric patients by clinicians of the Hippocratic school informed the classical humoral framework that dominated theoretical constructs of human disease for more than a thousand years. In the golden era of disease description at the end of the 19th century, the idiopathic entity polycythemia rubra vera (PRV) was first described and distinguished from secondary and relative polycythemia (red cell excess not caused by a primary bone marrow disorder, and artifactual red cell excess caused by plasma volume contraction, respectively). This review traces some of the principal events in the history of polycythemia vera (PV) as a discrete clinical entity.

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This article, by two of the late John H. Lawrence's fellows of the 1940s, traces the development of the knowledge of polycythemia vera from Vaquez, who wrote the first description of this disease, and Osler, who recognized it as "a new clinical entity," through John H. Lawrence and the use of 32P as a treatment for polycythemia vera, to the formation of French and Italian polycythemia study groups. In particular, the history of polycythemia vera after the Second World War, and its more recent history, can be traced through the development of an algorithm for evaluating an elevated hematocrit and the development of the first (O1) protocol of the Polycythemia Vera Study Group (PVSG), a randomized trial of the efficacy of 32P, chlorambucil, and phlebotomy for treating polycythemia vera. It was in 1948, only 9 years after the first use of 32P for treating polycythemia vera, that Byron Hall reported the occurrence of acute leukemia following this use of the isotope. This led to the formation of the PVSG. After completing enrollment of patients in the first protocol of the PVSG, an attempt to find a replacement for 32P as a myelosuppressive agent led to the testing of hydroxyurea as a putative non-leukemogenic drug for this purpose. However, the use of hydroxyurea for treating polycythemia vera is coming into question, as is the ability to maintain patients with phlebotomy alone. The PVSG as such no longer exists as an operational group; its files are maintained at the Mount Sinai School of Medicine in New York City. However, the French group created for the study of polycythemia vera has had a consensus conference, and the Italian group has developed a low-dose aspirin protocol for treating the disease.

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