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Gemycircularviruses (genus Gemycircularvirus, family Genomoviridae) are single-stranded DNA viruses that are spread around the world in association with several organisms and environments. In this work, we identified two gemycircularviruses associated with two non-cultivated plants in Brazil, Momordica charantia and Euphorbia heterophylla. Both viruses display the general genome structure of gemycircularviruses. The virus isolated from M. charantia showed the highest nucleotide sequence identity with Pteropus associated gemycircularvirus 5, and an atypical structure consisting of a hairpin embedded in the major stem-loop was observed in the intergenic region. The virus from E. heterophylla showed the highest nucleotide sequence identity with Odonata associated gemycircularvirus 1. Phylogenetic analysis groups the two new viruses together with other genomoviruses of the genus Gemycircularvirus.

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Begomoviruses belong to the family Geminiviridae are associated with several disease symptoms, such as mosaic and leaf curling in Jatropha curcas. The molecular characterization of these viral strains will help in developing management strategies to control the disease. In this study, J. curcas that was infected with begomovirus and showed acute leaf curling symptoms were identified. DNA-A segment from pathogenic viral strain was isolated and sequenced. The sequenced genome was assembled and characterized in detail. The full-length DNA-A sequence was covered by primer walking. The genome sequence showed the general organization of DNA-A from begomovirus by the distribution of ORFs in both viral and anti-viral strands. The genome size ranged from 2844 bp-2852 bp. Three strains with minor nucleotide variations were identified, and a phylogenetic analysis was performed by comparing the DNA-A segments from other reported begomovirus isolates. The maximum sequence similarity was observed with Euphorbia yellow mosaic virus (FN435995). In the phylogenetic tree, no clustering was observed with previously reported begomovirus strains isolated from J. curcas host. The strains isolated in this study belong to new begomoviral strain that elicits symptoms of leaf curling in J. curcas. The results indicate that the probable origin of the strains is from Jatropha mosaic virus infecting J. gassypifolia. The strains isolated in this study are referred as Jatropha curcas leaf curl India virus (JCLCIV) based on the major symptoms exhibited by host J. curcas.

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Cells harboring latent HIV-1 pose a major obstacle to eradication of the virus. The 'shock and kill' strategy has been broadly explored to purge the latent reservoir; however, none of the current latency-reversing agents (LRAs) can safely and effectively activate the latent virus in patients. In this study, we report an ingenol derivative called EK-16A, isolated from the traditional Chinese medicinal herb Euphorbia kansui, which displays great potential in reactivating latent HIV-1. A comparison of the doses used to measure the potency indicated EK-16A to be 200-fold more potent than prostratin in reactivating HIV-1 from latently infected cell lines. EK-16A also outperformed prostratin in ex vivo studies on cells from HIV-1-infected individuals, while maintaining minimal cytotoxicity effects on cell viability and T cell activation. Furthermore, EK-16A exhibited synergy with other LRAs in reactivating latent HIV-1. Mechanistic studies indicated EK-16A to be a PKCγ activator, which promoted both HIV-1 transcription initiation by NF-κB and elongation by P-TEFb signal pathways. Further investigations aimed to add this compound to the therapeutic arsenal for HIV-1 eradication are in the pipeline.

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The emergence of begomoviruses (whitefly-transmitted viruses classified in the genus Begomovirus, family Geminiviridae) in Brazil probably occurred by horizontal transfer from non-cultivated plants after the introduction of Bemisia tabaci MEAM1. The centre of diversity of Euphorbia heterophylla (Euphorbiaceae) is located in Brazil and Paraguay, where it is an invasive species in soybean and other crops. Reports of possible begomovirus infection of E. heterophylla in Brazil date back to the 1950s. In 2011, Euphorbia yellow mosaic virus (EuYMV) was described in symptomatic plants collected in the Brazilian state of Goiás. Here we assess the genetic variability and population structure of begomoviruses infecting E. heterophylla in samples collected throughout nine Brazilian states from 2009 to 2014. A total of 158 and 57 haplotypes were compared in DNA-A and DNA-B datasets, respectively. Analysis comparing population structure in a large sampled area enabled us to differentiate two subpopulations. Further, the application of discriminant analysis of principal components allowed the differentiation of six subpopulations according to sampling locations and in agreement with phylogenetic analysis. In general, negative selection was predominant in all six subpopulations. Interestingly, we were able to reconstruct the phylogeny based on the information from the 23 sites that contributed most to the geographical structure proposed, demonstrating that these polymorphisms hold supporting information to discriminate between subpopulations. These sites were mapped in the genome and compared at the level of amino acid changes, providing insights into how genetic drift and selection contribute to maintain the patterns of begomovirus population variability from a geographical structuring point of view.

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The complete genome sequence of an isolate of euphorbia ringspot virus (EuRSV) was determined by deep sequencing and rapid amplification of cDNA ends (RACE) RT-PCR. It has an RNA genome of 10,154 nucleotides in size, excluding the poly(A) tail, and encodes a polyprotein of 3265 amino acids. Phylogenetic analysis from this study supports the earlier taxonomic assignment to the genus Potyvirus; however, a gene encoding the HAM1h protein, inserted between NIb and CP of the EuRSV genome, which was previously only observed for cassava brown streak virus and Ugandan cassava brown streak virus of the genus Ipomovirus, is an unusual feature of this potyvirus, which otherwise has typical potyvirus genome features.

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Little is known about the prevalence, diversity, evolutionary processes, genomic structures and population dynamics of viruses in the divergent geminivirus lineage known as the capulaviruses. We determined and analyzed full genome sequences of 13 Euphorbia caput-medusae latent virus (EcmLV) and 26 Alfalfa leaf curl virus (ALCV) isolates, and partial genome sequences of 23 EcmLV and 37 ALCV isolates. While EcmLV was asymptomatic in uncultivated southern African Euphorbia caput-medusae, severe alfalfa disease symptoms were associated with ALCV in southern France. The prevalence of both viruses exceeded 10% in their respective hosts. Besides using patterns of detectable negative selection to identify ORFs that are probably functionally expressed, we show that ALCV and EcmLV both display evidence of inter-species recombination and biologically functional genomic secondary structures. Finally, we show that whereas the EcmLV populations likely experience restricted geographical dispersion, ALCV is probably freely moving across the French Mediterranean region.

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During a large scale "non a priori" survey in 2010 of South African plant-infecting single stranded DNA viruses, a highly divergent geminivirus genome was isolated from a wild spurge, Euphorbia caput-medusae. In addition to being infectious in E. caput-medusae, the cloned viral genome was also infectious in tomato and Nicotiana benthamiana. The virus, named Euphorbia caput-medusae latent virus (EcmLV) due to the absence of infection symptoms displayed by its natural host, caused severe symptoms in both tomato and N. benthamiana. The genome organisation of EcmLV is unique amongst geminiviruses and it likely expresses at least two proteins without any detectable homologues within public sequence databases. Although clearly a geminivirus, EcmLV is so divergent that we propose its placement within a new genus that we have tentatively named Capulavirus. Using a set of highly divergent geminiviruses genomes, it is apparent that recombination has likely been a primary process in the genus-level diversification of geminiviruses. It is also demonstrated how this insight, taken together with phylogenetic analyses of predicted coat protein and replication associated protein (Rep) amino acid sequences indicate that the most recent common ancestor of the geminiviruses was likely a dicot-infecting virus that, like modern day mastreviruses and becurtoviruses, expressed its Rep from a spliced complementary strand transcript.

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Tomato severe rugose virus (ToSRV) is the most important begomovirus species in Brazilian tomato production. Many weeds are associated with tomato, and some are hosts of begomoviruses. Only one species of weed, Nicandra physaloides, has been found to be infected with ToSRV. In this study, four weed species were investigated for their capacity to be infected by ToSRV and serve as a potential source of inoculum for tomato. Begomoviruses from naturally infected Crotalaria spp., Euphorbia heterophylla, N. physaloides, and Sida spp. were successfully transferred to tomato plants by biolistic inoculation. ToSRV was the major virus transferred to tomato. In contrast, other begomoviruses were transferred to weeds, such as Sida micrantha mosaic virus and Euphorbia yellow mosaic virus. Furthermore, a new strain of Sida micrantha mosaic virus is reported. We also confirmed that Crotalaria spp., E. heterophylla, and Sida spp. are infected with ToSRV but at low viral titers and in mixed infections with weed-infecting begomoviruses. Thus, it was demonstrated that weeds are potential sources of ToSRV for tomato in central Brazil.

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We report the complete nucleotide sequence of a begomovirus isolate infecting Euphorbia heterophylla and tomato (Solanum lycopersicum) in central Venezuela. Based on the current taxonomic criteria for the genus Begomovirus, the isolate was shown to represent a novel species, tentatively named Euphorbia mosaic Venezuela virus (EuMVV). Its DNA-A is most closely related to those of Euphorbia-infecting begomoviruses from the Caribbean and Central America. The DNA B component forms a phylogenetic cluster with Euphorbia and Sida-infecting begomoviruses from the squash leaf curl virus (SLCV) cluster. EuMVV is transmissible to S. lycopersicum and Capsicum annuum by biolistics of infectious cloned DNA-A and DNA-B components and induces characteristic leaf downward curling and yellowing in S. lycopersicum and and yellowing and leaf distortion in Capsicum annuum.

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To date, no begomovirus has been fully characterized from Euphorbia heterophylla, a widely distributed weed, in Brazil. Here, we show the occurrence of a new begomovirus on E. heterophylla plants showing bright yellow mosaic. The bipartite viral genome was cloned from 10 samples, and all clones are almost identical to each other (95.6-98.8% nucleotide sequence identity). The DNA-A sequences shared a maximum nucleotide sequence identity of 87.3% with euphorbia mosaic Peru virus (EuMPV) and thus were classified as belonging to a novel begomovirus species, tentatively named Euphorbia yellow mosaic virus (EuYMV). The EuYMV DNA-B sequences share a maximum nucleotide sequence identity of 56.2% with a euphorbia mosaic virus (EuMV) isolate from Mexico. Phylogenetic analysis demonstrated that this new virus belongs to a different lineage than EuMV isolates from Central America.

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To investigate the infectivity of Euphorbia leaf curl virus (EuLCV), an infectious clone was constructed and tested by agroinoculation and whitefly inoculation. EuLCV infected Nicotiana benthamiana, N. glutinosa, Solanum lycopersicum, Petunia hybrida efficiently upon agroinoculation and induced leaf curling, vein swelling and stunting in these plants but no symptoms in N. tabacum. Co-inoculation of EuLCV with a betasatellite DNA from an unrelated begomovirus enhanced symptoms in N. benthamiana, N. glutinosa, N. tabacum, S. lycopersicum and P. hybrida plants but had no effect on the accumulation of EuLCV DNA. Euphorbia pulcherrima plants were only infectable by insect transmission from agro-infected P. hybrida as a source. This is the first report about a monopartite begomovirus that has been reintroduced into a plant of the genus Euphorbia.

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The complete nucleotide sequences of five isolates of poinsettia mosaic virus (PnMV) from Japan (JN, JO1, JO2, JO4, and JO5) were determined. These isolates contained a single large open reading frame in their genomes and shared 96.6-97.8% identity at the nucleotide level and 91.3-98.1% identity at the amino acid level with two previously reported European isolates. Interestingly, the JO isolates were found to possess eight common translational frameshift sites in the interdomain region between the methyltransferase and protease domains, resulting in considerable variation in the interdomain region compared to the other isolates. This suggests that PnMV might have evolved by creating variations in its genome by such translational frameshifts.

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An infectious cDNA clone of a Norwegian isolate of Poinsettia mosaic virus (PnMV) was generated. It consisted of 6,098 nucleotides and encoded a polyprotein of 219.5 kDa. Sequence comparisons indicated that this isolate shared 98.6% (nucleotide) and 97.1% (amino acid) identity with the previously sequenced isolate from Germany. RNA transcripts derived from this cDNA were infectious in Nicotiana benthamiana. However, plants did not present typical PnMV symptoms. Furthermore, RNA transcripts from this cDNA clone were not infectious in poinsettia. Serial propagation of this cDNA clone in N. benthamiana plants restored symptom induction in this host but did not re-establish infectivity in poinsettia.

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Agrobacterium-mediated transformation for poinsettia (Euphorbia pulcherrima Willd. Ex Klotzsch) is reported here for the first time. Internode stem explants of poinsettia cv. Millenium were transformed by Agrobacterium tumefaciens, strain LBA 4404, harbouring virus-derived hairpin (hp) RNA gene constructs to induce RNA silencing-mediated resistance to Poinsettia mosaic virus (PnMV). Prior to transformation, an efficient somatic embryogenesis system was developed for poinsettia cv. Millenium in which about 75% of the explants produced somatic embryos. In 5 experiments utilizing 868 explants, 18 independent transgenic lines were generated. An average transformation frequency of 2.1% (range 1.2-3.5%) was revealed. Stable integration of transgenes into the poinsettia nuclear genome was confirmed by PCR and Southern blot analysis. Both single- and multiple-copy transgene integration into the poinsettia genome were found among transformants. Transgenic poinsettia plants showing resistance to mechanical inoculation of PnMV were detected by double antibody sandwich enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (DAS-ELISA). Northern blot analysis of low molecular weight RNA revealed that transgene-derived small interfering (si) RNA molecules were detected among the poinsettia transformants prior to inoculation. The Agrobacterium-mediated transformation methodology developed in the current study should facilitate improvement of this ornamental plant with enhanced disease resistance, quality improvement and desirable colour alteration. Because poinsettia is a non-food, non-feed plant and is not propagated through sexual reproduction, this is likely to be more acceptable even in areas where genetically modified crops are currently not cultivated.

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Exposure to the plant Euphorbia tirucalli has been proposed to be a cofactor in the genesis of endemic Burkitt's lymphoma (eBL). The purpose of this study was to examine the effects of unpurified E. tirucalli latex on Epstein-Barr virus (EBV) gene expression. A Burkitt lymphoma cell line was treated with varying dilutions of the latex and the effects on EBV gene expression were measured. We observed that the latex was capable of reactivating the EBV lytic cycle in a dose-dependent manner and at dilutions as low as 10(-6). Simultaneous treatment of cells with E. tirucalli latex and the protein kinase C inhibitor 1-(5-isoquinolinesulphonyl)-2-methylpiperazine dihydrochloride blocked lytic cycle activation. These data suggest that environmental exposure to the latex of E. tirucalli could directly activate the EBV lytic cycle and provide further evidence of a role for E. tirucalli in the aetiology of eBL.

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