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Abstract The aim of this paper was to present the second case of B chromosomes in Auchenipteridae (Trachelyopterus sp.), and to test the hypothesis that the B chromosomes of this species and Parauchenipterus galeatus might have a common origin, since these two species have phylogenetic proximity. Both species have 58 chromosomes in the A complement, heterochromatin preferentially located at terminal region of the most of chromosomes, simple Ag-NORs located at the short arm of a subtelocentric pair, which was confirmed by hybridization with 18S rDNA, two submetacentric pairs carrying 5S rDNA sites, and presence of B chromosomes. The B chromosomes of the two species are small, metacentric, and almost totally heterochromatic, with variation of number intra and interindividual. In addition, for the first time in fish, the telomeric sequence [TTAGGG]n was dispersed along the B chromosomes (both species). The [GATA]n microsatellite were scattered in all chromosomes of the A complement and absent in the B chromosomes, in both species. These aspects confirm the phylogenetic proximity between the genus Parauchenipterus and Trachelyopterus, and they suggest the hypothesis that the B chromosomes of the two species might have common origin, previous to the diversification of these genera.

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Supernumerary B chromosomes (Bs) are very promising structures, among others, in that they are an additional genomic compartment for evolution. In this study, we tested the presence and frequency of B chromosomes and performed the first cytogenetic examination of the common nase (Chondrostoma nasus). We investigated the individuals from two populations in the Vistula River basin, in Poland, according to the chromosomal distribution of the C-bands and silver nucleolar organizer regions (Ag-NORs), using sequential staining with AgNO3 and chromomycin A3 (CMA3). Furthermore, we analyzed the chromosomal localization of two rDNA families (45S and 5S rDNA) using fluorescence in situ hybridization (FISH) with rDNA probes. C. nasus individuals showed a standard (A) chromosome set consisting of 2n = 50: 12 metacentric, 32 submetacentric, and 6 acrocentric chromosomes (NF = 94). Fourteen out of the 20 analyzed individuals showed 1-2 mitotically unstable submetacentric B chromosomes of different sizes. Six of them, in 14.1% of the analyzed metaphase plates, had a single, medium-sized submetacentric B (Bsm) chromosome (2n = 51) with a heterochromatic block located in its pericentromeric region. The other seven individuals possessed a Bsm (2n = 51) in 19.4% of the analyzed metaphase plates, and a second Bsm chromosome (2n = 52), the smallest in the set, in 15.5% of metaphase plates, whereas one female was characterized by both Bsm chromosomes (2n = 52) in 14.3% of the analyzed metaphase plates. AgNORs, GC-rich DNA sites, and 28S rDNA hybridization sites were observed in the short arms of two submetacentric chromosome pairs of A set. The constitutive heterochromatin was visible as C bands in the centromeric regions of almost all C. nasus chromosomes and in the pericentromeric region of several chromosome pairs. Two 5S rDNA hybridization sites in the pericentromeric position of the largest acrocentric chromosome pair were observed, whereas two other such sites in co-localization on a smaller pair of NOR chromosomes indicate a species-specific character. The results herein broaden our knowledge in the field of B chromosome distribution and molecular cytogenetics of C. nasus: a freshwater species from the Leuciscidae family.

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Supernumerary B chromosomes (Bs) are extra karyotype units in addition to A chromosomes, and are found in some fungi and thousands of animals and plant species. Bs are uniquely characterized due to their non-Mendelian inheritance, and represent one of the best examples of genomic conflict. Over the last decades, their genetic composition, function and evolution have remained an unresolved query, although a few successful attempts have been made to address these phenomena. A classical concept based on cytogenetics and genetics is that Bs are selfish and abundant with DNA repeats and transposons, and in most cases, they do not carry any function. However, recently, the modern quantum development of high scale multi-omics techniques has shifted B research towards a new-born field that we call "B-omics". We review the recent literature and add novel perspectives to the B research, discussing the role of new technologies to understand the mechanistic perspectives of the molecular evolution and function of Bs. The modern view states that B chromosomes are enriched with genes for many significant biological functions, including but not limited to the interesting set of genes related to cell cycle and chromosome structure. Furthermore, the presence of B chromosomes could favor genomic rearrangements and influence the nuclear environment affecting the function of other chromatin regions. We hypothesize that B chromosomes might play a key function in driving their transmission and maintenance inside the cell, as well as offer an extra genomic compartment for evolution.

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OBJECTIVE: To determine the correlations of single nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs) with atrial fibrillation (AF) in the Chinese Han population from the central plains.
 Methods: A total of 168 hospitalized patients, including 56 AF and 112 controls, were recruited in this case-control study. The clinical data were obtained from the medical records. All 5 SNPs, rs337711 in KCNN2, rs11264280 near KCNN3, rs17042171 near PITX2, rs6771157 and rs6795970 in SCN10A, were genotyped using amplification refractory mutation system-polymerase chain reaction or direct sequencing. The χ2 test was used to compare categorical variables and preliminarily examine correlations between the genotype frequencies and AF. Subsequently, a logistic regression model was constructed to determine the associations between the SNPs and AF based on the above screened results. Odds ratios (ORs) and 95% confidence interval (CI) were calculated to assess the strength of the correlations. Moreover, we downloaded the genotype data from the HapMap Project for linkage disequilibrium analysis of rs17042171.
 Results: AF patients were likely to be of older age and longer left atrial diameter and had more coronary artery disease and higher hypertension compared with the control group (P<0.05). Among the 5 SNPs, the frequency distribution of genotype AA for rs17042171 was significantly different between the AF and control groups (P<0.05). After adjusting for several covariates, there was still a high risk ratio in patients with the AA genotype compared with the AC+CC genotype (OR: 5.591, 95%CI 2.176 to 14.365, P-B<0.008). Similarly, stratification analysis on the AA genotype demonstrated significant differences between rs17042171 and persistent AF. However, there were not significant correlations between AF and the control groups for the other 4 SNPs (P<0.05).
 Conclusion: Rs17042171, near PITX2 on chromosome 4q25, is associated with AF susceptibility in the Chinese Han population from the central plains, suggesting that this SNP can provide a new strategy for clinical diagnosis in AF patients.

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OBJECTIVES: To report a woman with primary ovarian insufficiency (POI) with reciprocal translocation between chromosomes 5 and 13. METHODS: Chromosomal analysis (G-banding) of a 39-year-old woman with elevated gonadotropin levels and secondary amenorrhea and review of the literature with a special focus on disrupted genes at the reported breakpoints. RESULTS: A reciprocal translocation between the long arms of chromosomes 5 and 13 was identified in the patient (46,XX,t(5;13)(q13;q14)). Investigation of the breakpoints revealed that the 13q14.1 region encompasses FOXO1 (forkhead box 1) gene, which has an important role in granulosa cell function and follicle maturation. CONCLUSIONS: Autosomal translocations are rare in women with POI. We have reported the first case of a de novo reciprocal translocation involving chromosomes 5 and 13 in a POI patient. As one of the breakpoints encompasses the FOXO1 gene, it seems that disruption of this gene can be the cause of POI in this patient. This provides further evidence on the role of autosomal translocations in disrupting POI-associated genes. Therefore, concentrating on the genes at the breakpoints will be helpful to delineate the new biological pathways or genes involved in POI pathogenesis.

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BACKGROUND: B chromosomes are dispensable and variable karyotypic elements found in some species of animals, plants and fungi. They often originate from duplications and translocations of host genomic regions or result from hybridization. In most species, little is known about their DNA content. Here we perform high-throughput sequencing and analysis of B chromosomes of roe deer and brocket deer, the only representatives of Cetartiodactyla known to have B chromosomes. RESULTS: In this study we developed an approach to identify genomic regions present on chromosomes by high-throughput sequencing of DNA generated from flow-sorted chromosomes using degenerate-oligonucleotide-primed PCR. Application of this method on small cattle autosomes revealed a previously described KIT gene region translocation associated with colour sidedness. Implementing this approach to B chromosomes from two cervid species, Siberian roe deer (Capreolus pygargus) and grey brocket deer (Mazama gouazoubira), revealed dramatically different genetic content: roe deer B chromosomes consisted of two duplicated genomic regions (a total of 1.42-1.98 Mbp) involving three genes, while grey brocket deer B chromosomes contained 26 duplicated regions (a total of 8.28-9.31 Mbp) with 34 complete and 21 partial genes, including KIT and RET protooncogenes, previously found on supernumerary chromosomes in canids. Sequence variation analysis of roe deer B chromosomes revealed a high frequency of mutations and increased heterozygosity due to either amplification within B chromosomes or divergence between different Bs. In contrast, grey brocket deer B chromosomes were found to be more homogeneous and resembled autosomes in patterns of sequence variation. Similar tendencies were observed in repetitive DNA composition. CONCLUSIONS: Our data demonstrate independent origins of B chromosomes in the grey brocket and roe deer. We hypothesize that the B chromosomes of these two cervid species represent different stages of B chromosome sequences evolution: probably nascent and similar to autosomal copies in brocket deer, highly derived in roe deer. Based on the presence of the same orthologous protooncogenes in canids and brocket deer Bs we argue that genomic regions involved in B chromosome formation are not random. In addition, our approach is also applicable to the characterization of other evolutionary and clinical rearrangements.

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BACKGROUND: A subset of undifferentiated small round cell sarcomas (USRCSs) is currently being recognized as emerging entities with unique gene fusions: CIC-DUX4 (the area of focus in this article), BCOR-CCNB3, or CIC-FOXO4 gene fusions. CIC-DUX4 and CIC-FOXO4 fusions have been reported in soft tissue tumors, while BCOR-CCNB3 fusion with an X chromosomal inversion was described in both bone and soft tissue tumors. CIC-DUX4 fusion can either harbor t(4;19)(q35;q13.1) or t(10;19)(q26.3;q13), while t(4;19)(q35;q13.1) is reported more commonly. CASE REPORT: The aim of this study is to share a new case report of a 36-year-old woman who had a rapidly growing mass in her right upper thigh, which was found to be an undifferentiated small round cell sarcoma with t(4;19)(q35;q13.1) CIC-DUX4 fusion was confirmed by cytogenetic testing. Combined modality treatment with surgery, radiation, and chemotherapy was used and achieved a good response. A review of the literature of the reported cases with CIC-DUX4 fusions including both t(4;19) and t(10;19) translocations revealed a total of 44 cases reported. Out of these 44 cases, 33 showed t(4;19)(q35;q13.1) translocation compared to 11 cases with t(10;19)(q26.3;q13). CONCLUSIONS: Undifferentiated small round cell sarcomas are aggressive tumors. Their treatment includes surgery, chemotherapy, and radiation. Resistance to chemotherapy is common. Lung and brain are common sites of metastasis, with associated poor prognosis. Generally, median survival is less than 2 years. Newer techniques have been developed recently which helped identify a subset of previously unclassifiable sarcomas, with promising prognostic value.

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BACKGROUND: The development of cervical cancer and its high-grade precursor lesions (Cervical Intraepithelial Neoplasia grade 2/3 [CIN2/3]) result from a persistent infection with high-risk human papillomavirus (hrHPV) types and the accumulation of (epi)genetic host cell aberrations. Epidemiological studies have demonstrated variable CIN2/3 and cancer risks between different hrHPV types. Recent genomic profiling studies revealed substantial heterogeneity in the chromosomal aberrations detected in morphologically indistinguishable CIN2/3 suggestive of varying cancer risk. The current study aimed to investigate whether CIN2/3 with different hrHPV types vary with respect to their chromosomal profiles, both in terms of the number of aberrations and chromosomal loci affected. METHODS: Chromosomal profiles were determined of 43 p16INK4a-immunopositive CIN2/3 of women with long-term hrHPV infection (≥ 5 years). Sixteen lesions harboured HPV16, 3 HPV18, 14 HPV31, 1 HPV33, 4 HPV45, 1 HPV51, 2 HPV52 and 2 HPV58. RESULTS: Unsupervised hierarchical clustering analysis of the chromosomal profiles revealed two major clusters, characterised by either few or multiple chromosomal aberrations, respectively. A majority of 87.5% of lesions with HPV16 were in the cluster with relatively few aberrations, whereas no such unbalanced distribution was seen for lesions harbouring other hrHPV types. Analysis of the two most prevalent types (HPV16 and HPV31) in this data set revealed a three-fold increase in the number of losses in lesions with HPV31 compared to HPV16-positive lesions. In particular, losses at chromosomes 2q, 4p, 4q, 6p, 6q, 8q & 17p and gain at 1p & 1q were significantly more frequent in HPV31-positive lesions (FDR < 0.2). CONCLUSIONS: Chromosomal aberrations in CIN2/3 are at least in part related to the hrHPV type present. The relatively low number of chromosomal aberrations observed in HPV16-positive CIN2/3 suggests that the development of these lesions is less dependent on genetic insult than those caused by other types like HPV31.

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OBJECTIVES: Migrainous vertigo (episodic vertigo associated with migraine) is sometimes inherited as an autosomal dominant trait. However, neither disease genes nor loci that might be responsible have been reported. We sought to map the genetic locus for familial migrainous vertigo in a 4-generation family and to define the progression of disease in this family. METHODS: We studied 23 members in a family in whom migrainous vertigo was inherited as an autosomal dominant trait. Clinical information obtained included case histories and results of otolaryngological, neurologic, audiometric, and imaging evaluations. Genome-wide linkage analysis was performed with Affymetrix Genechip Human Mapping 10K microarrays. Genotyping of family members' DNA with microsatellite markers was used to further assess candidate loci identified from the whole-genome scan. RESULTS: Of 23 family members, 10 suffered from migrainous vertigo beginning after 35 years of age. Migraine headaches usually preceded the onset of vertigo by 15 to 20 years. Longitudinal audiometric studies over 12 years showed stable, high-frequency sensorineural hearing loss consistent with presbycusis. Low-frequency or fluctuating hearing loss was not observed. The results of vestibular testing and imaging studies were unremarkable. Genetic analysis defined a 12.0 MB interval on chromosome 5q35 between loci rs244895 and D5S2073 that contained the disease gene (logarithm of odds score, 4.21). CONCLUSIONS: We report the first locus for familial migrainous vertigo, which mapped to 5q35.

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BACKGROUND: Hyperuricaemia, a highly heritable trait, is a key risk factor for gout. We aimed to identify novel genes associated with serum uric acid concentration and gout. METHODS: Genome-wide association studies were done for serum uric acid in 7699 participants in the Framingham cohort and in 4148 participants in the Rotterdam cohort. Genome-wide significant single nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs) were replicated in white (n=11 024) and black (n=3843) individuals who took part in the study of Atherosclerosis Risk in Communities (ARIC). The SNPs that reached genome-wide significant association with uric acid in either the Framingham cohort (p<5.0 x 10(-8)) or the Rotterdam cohort (p<1.0 x 10(-7)) were evaluated with gout. The results obtained in white participants were combined using meta-analysis. FINDINGS: Three loci in the Framingham cohort and two in the Rotterdam cohort showed genome-wide association with uric acid. Top SNPs in each locus were: missense rs16890979 in SLC2A9 (p=7.0 x 10(-168) and 2.9 x 10(-18) for white and black participants, respectively); missense rs2231142 in ABCG2 (p=2.5 x 10(-60) and 9.8 x 10(-4)), and rs1165205 in SLC17A3 (p=3.3 x 10(-26) and 0.33). All SNPs were direction-consistent with gout in white participants: rs16890979 (OR 0.59 per T allele, 95% CI 0.52-0.68, p=7.0 x 10(-14)), rs2231142 (1.74, 1.51-1.99, p=3.3 x 10(-15)), and rs1165205 (0.85, 0.77-0.94, p=0.002). In black participants of the ARIC study, rs2231142 was direction-consistent with gout (1.71, 1.06-2.77, p=0.028). An additive genetic risk score of high-risk alleles at the three loci showed graded associations with uric acid (272-351 mumol/L in the Framingham cohort, 269-386 mumol/L in the Rotterdam cohort, and 303-426 mumol/L in white participants of the ARIC study) and gout (frequency 2-13% in the Framingham cohort, 2-8% in the Rotterdam cohort, and 1-18% in white participants in the ARIC study). INTERPRETATION: We identified three genetic loci associated with uric acid concentration and gout. A score based on genes with a putative role in renal urate handling showed a substantial risk for gout.

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AIMS: The gamma-aminobutyric acid receptor A (GABRA) gene clusters on chromosomes 4 and 5 have been examined previously for their association with alcohol and drug dependence phenotypes. Compelling evidence suggests that GABRA2 is associated with alcohol and drug dependence. However, no study has investigated whether genes in the GABA(A) gene clusters are associated with nicotine dependence, an important phenotype with a high correlation to persistent smoking, the single most preventable cause of mortality world-wide. DESIGN: Using data on 1050 nicotine-dependent cases and 879 non-dependent smoking controls, we used logistic regression to examine the association between single nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs) in 13 genes in the GABA(A) receptor system as well as GABBR2 (a GABA(B) gene). FINDINGS: We found evidence for association between four SNPs in GABRA4, two SNPs in GABRA2 and one SNP in GABRE with nicotine dependence. These included a synonymous polymorphism in GABRA2 (rs279858), lying in a highly conserved region, which has been shown previously to be associated with alcohol and drug dependence. A non-synonymous polymorphism (rs16859834/rs2229940) in GABRA4, also highly conserved, was associated at P-value of 0.03. Significant haplotypes associated with nicotine dependence were found for GABRA2. No evidence for epistatic interactions were noted. Our study did not find evidence for an association between GABBR2 gene and nicotine dependence. CONCLUSIONS: Given the potential role of compounds that enhance GABAergic neurotransmission in smoking cessation research, these findings have enormous potential for informing the wider field of addiction research.

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Toxic effects of the antineoplastic drug irinotecan on human blood cells at concentrations of 9.0 microg/ml and 4.6 microg/ml were evaluated in vitro. Using the alkaline and neutral comet assay significantly increased levels of primary DNA damage in lymphocytes were detected. The induction of apoptosis/necrosis, as determined by a fluorescent assay, was also notably increased. Cytogenetic outcomes of the treatment were assessed by the analysis of structural chromosome aberrations and fluorescence in situ hybridization. A significantly higher incidence of chromatid breaks and complex quadriradials was observed. Painted chromosomes 1, 2 and 4 were equally involved in translocations, but only the chromosome 1 was involved in the formation of quadriradials. Sister chromatid exchange analysis was performed in parallel with the analysis of lymphocyte proliferation kinetics. The higher concentration of irinotecan caused almost seven-time increase, while the lower one caused a five-time increase of the basal sister chromatid exchange frequency, accompanied with significant lowering of the lymphocyte proliferation index. Using the cytokinesis-block micronucleus assay, a dose-dependent increase in micronucleus frequency along with the formation of nuclear buds and nucleoplasmic bridges was noticed. Inhibitory effects of irinotecan on enzyme acetylcholinesterase (AChE) were studied in erythrocytes. An IC(50) value of 5.0 x 10(-7) was established. Irinotecan was found to be strong inhibitor of the acetylcholine hydrolysis and to cause a continuous decrease of catalytic activity of AChE. The results obtained on a single donor may contribute to the understanding of irinotecan toxicity, but further in vitro and in vivo studies are essential in order to clarify remaining issues, especially on possible inter-individual variability in genotoxic responses to the drug.

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We measured the induction of structural aberrations in human chromosome 5 induced by iron ions using the novel technique of multicolor banding in situ hybridization (mBAND). Human lymphocytes isolated from whole blood were exposed in vitro to 500 MeV/n (LET=200 keV/micrometers, doses 1 or 4 Gy) Fe nuclei at the HIMAC accelerator in Chiba (Japan). Chromosomes were prematurely condensed by calyculin A after 48 h in culture and slides were painted by mBAND. We found a frequency of 0.11 and 0.57 residual breakpoints per chromosome 5 after 1 and 4 Gy Fe-ions, respectively. Inter-chromosomal exchanges were the prevalent aberration type measured at both doses, followed by terminal deletions, and by intra-chromosomal exchanges. Among intra-chromosomal exchanges, intra-arm events were more frequent than inter-arm, but a significant number of intra-changes was associated to inter-changes involving the same chromosome after 4 Gy of iron ions. These events show that the complexity of chromosomal exchanges induced by heavy ions can be higher than expected by previous FISH studies.

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Specific and well-organized chromosome architecture in human sperm cells is supported by the prominent interactions between centromeres and between telomeres. The telomere-telomere interactions result in telomere dimers that are positioned at the nuclear periphery. It is unknown whether composition of sperm telomere dimers is random or specific. We now report that telomere dimers result from specific interactions between the two ends of each chromosome. FISH using pairs of subtelomeric DNA probes that correspond to the small and long arms of seven human chromosomes demonstrates that subtelomeres of one chromosome are brought together. Statistical analysis confirmed that telomere associations could not result from the random proximity of DNA sequences. Therefore, chromosomes in human sperm nuclei adopt a looped conformation. This higher-order chromosome structure is most likely required for chromosome withdrawal/decondensation during the early fertilization events leading to zygote formation.

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BACKGROUND: Chromosomal aberration observed only in a few metaphases may cause the cytogeneticists to have difficulties in making a decision whether it is due to in vivo mosaicism/multiple clones or due to in vitro artifact. This is especially important when the chromosome of concern has been associated with a classical chromosome syndrome, malignancy or its evolution. Therefore, we aimed to establish a range for random chromosomal aberrations among cells from PHA-stimulated blood(PB) and bone marrow(BM) cultures. METHODS: Among the cells from 449 PB and 472 BM specimens referred for chromosome studies from 1997 to 1998, we analyzed the frequency of random aneuploidy, structural abnormalities, and breaks/gaps. RESULTS: The number of cells analyzed was 5,904/4,488(1997/1998) in PB and 4,211/4,124(1997/1998) in BM. The frequency of metaphases with random chromosomal aberrations of BM(32.10%) was much higher than that of PB(5.90%). The most frequent aberration was chromsome loss. Autosome losses were inversely correlated with autosome size(correlation coefficient = -0.83 and -0.72, p<0.01), smaller chromosomes being lost more frequently while autosome breaks/gaps were correlated with autosome size(correlation coefficient = 0.69 and 0.85, p<0.01), in PB and BM. Comparing the data from 1998 to the data from 1997, the frequency of chromosome losses(<0.5% in PB, <2.25% in BM), gains(<0.1% in PB and BM), breaks/gaps(<0.1% in PB, <0.25% in BM), and structural aberrations(

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In order to investigate genomic imbalances, comparative genomic hybridization was applied to 20 malignant fibrous histiocytomas. Deletions were rare and found mainly in chromosomes 2q33-35, 4q32-qter, 8p, 9p21-pter, 12p and 19p, whereas, over-representations frequently affected chromosomes 3, 4q31, 5p, 6, 7, 14q22-ter, 18p, as well as, five distinct amplifications within the regions 12q12-15 and 15q24-qter. The total number of genetic imbalances per tumor was slightly increased in primary tumors when compared to relapses. No relationship was found between the patterns of gain and loss when compared to the histological subtype, tumor grading, the clinical outcome and the p53 mutation status.

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About 20% of all human conceptuses are estimated to be trisomic and trisomy of all chromosomes remains a common cause of early fetal loss. Uniparental disomy (UPD) has been reported for most human chromosomes and may be an underrecognized contributor to embryonic lethality. To investigate the contribution of UPD to spontaneous abortions, we devised a genome-based screening strategy to identify holochromosomic UPD in 18 fetal losses. No cases of UPD were identified using this approach. Based on our data, UPD does not appear to be a significant contributor to early embryonic lethality. The results of the study are presented along with a review of the cases of UPD reported in the literature by chromosome, parental origin, mode of ascertainment, and phenotypic consequences due to imprinting.

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Allelic loss is a hallmark of tumor suppressor gene (TSG) inactivation. We have allelotyped 29 paired lymphoblastoid and lung cancer cell lines derived from 11 patients with small cell (SCLC) and 18 patients with non-small cell lung carcinomas (NSCLC). Statistical analysis indicated that a threshold of 30% separated non-random allelic loss from the random genetic deletions of malignancy. We have identified non-random allelic loss at 42 of 54 (78%) specific chromosomal regions examined, with 22 regions (52%) common between the two major lung cancer histologic types. There were 3 regions (7%) with allelic loss specific for SCLC and 17 regions (41%) specific for NSCLC. Furthermore, there were significant differences in loss of heterozygosity (LOH) frequencies between NSCLC and SCLC at 13 regions on eight chromosome arms (3p, 5q, 6q, 9p, 10q, 11p, 13q, and 19p). Eight homozygous deletions were present in seven cell lines at four regions, 3p12, 3p14.2, 9p21, and 10q23-25. We have also identified novel sites of chromosomal deletions. In particular, there was frequent loss at 11p13 in SCLC and loss at 6p21.3 and 13q12.3 in NSCLC. In this study, we demonstrate that a) non-random allelic losses in lung cancer involve multiple regions; b) some losses are common to both NSCLC and SCLC subtypes, whereas others are subtype specific; c) there are genetic deletions at novel chromosomal regions; and d) several homozygous deletions have been noted. Our studies demonstrate the usefulness of continuous cell lines for detailed allelotyping, for comparing genetic abnormalities between SCLC and NSCLC, and for identifying homozygous deletions.

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Craniosynostosis syndromes are developmental disorders that cause an abnormal shape of the skull due to the premature fusion of cranial sutures. Enormous progress has been made recently in understanding the genetic background of these disorders and a classification of syndromes on a genetic basis is beginning to emerge. Members of at least three gene families that play an important role in vertebrate development are associated with different craniosynostosis syndromes. Here we review the genetic aspects of this fast-moving field.

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