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RESUMO. As drogas se consolidam como um dos arquétipos culturais predominantes no cotidiano das sociedades urbanas, sendo sua presença ubíqua em praticamente todas as culturas. Os registros históricos apresentam ampla variabilidade de substâncias que em dado momento eram classificadas como o perigo social da época e que em outro se tornavam banalizadas ou tipificadas como inofensivas. Assim, esse estudo teve como objetivo analisar como dispositivo droga que se consolida em diferentes períodos históricos. Para isso, foram coletadas 4.227 matérias dos jornais Folha da Manhã, Folha da Noite e Folha de São Paulo, que abordassem questões relativas ao álcool (década de 1920), maconha (décadas de 1930 a 1960) e crack (década de 1980 a 2005) e realizada Análise Temática de Conteúdo. Os resultados permitem afirmar que a característica central que define todas as substâncias analisadas nos distintos momentos históricos é o risco social que ela apresenta. A droga se constitui como um risco aos usuários ao mesmo tempo que os institui enquanto uma figura de ameaça social. Ao se referenciar uma substância como uma droga, são ativados sentidos que remetem a um quadro de decadência e criminalidade.

RESUMEN. Las drogas se consolidan como uno de los arquetipos culturales predominantes en la vida cotidiana de las sociedades urbanas, y su presencia ubicua en prácticamente todas las culturas. Los registros históricos muestran una amplia variabilidad de sustancias que en un momento se clasificaron como el peligro social de la época y en otro momento se trivializaron o tipificaron como inofensivas. Así que este estudio tuvo como objetivo analizar cómo diferentes sustancias psicoactivas se encuentran en la prensa como un riesgo social en diferentes momentos. Para ello, se recogieron 4.227 artículos del periódico Folha da Manhã, Folha da Noite y Folha de São Paulo, que abordasen temas relacionados con el alcohol (1920), marihuana (1930 a 1960) y el crack (1980 a 2005) y se realizó un Análisis Temático de Contenido. Los resultados muestran que la característica definitoria de todas las drogas examinadas en los diferentes momentos históricos es el riesgo social que presenta. La droga se constituye como un riesgo para los usuarios mientras los establece como una figura de amenaza social. Al hacer referencia a una sustancia como droga, se activan sentidos que conducen a un marco de decadencia y criminalidad.

ABSTRACT Drugs are one of the predominant cultural archetypes in the daily life of urban societies, and their ubiquitous presence in almost all cultures. Historical records show a wide variability of substances that at one point were classified as the social danger of the time and at another time trivialized or typified as harmless. Thus, this study aimed to analyze how different psychoactive substances are constituted in the press as a social risk at different times. For this, we collected 4,227 articles of newspapers Folha da Manhã, Folha da Noite and Folha de São Paulo, that addressed issues related to alcohol (1920), marijuana (1930s to 1960) and crack (1980s to 2005) and performed a Thematic Content Analysis. The results indicate that the central defining characteristic of all drugs examined in the different historical moments is the social risk it has. The drug is constituted as a risk to users while establishing them as a figure of social threat. When referring a substance as a drug, senses are activated that denote to a situation of decadence and crime.

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INTRODUCTION: Brazil is the world's biggest consumer of crack cocaine, and dependence is a major public health issue. This is the first study to investigate the prevalence of potentially harmful adulterants present in hair samples from Brazilian patients with crack cocaine dependence. METHOD: We evaluated adulterants in hair samples extracted by convenience from 100 patients admitted at the 48 hour-observation unit of Centro de Referência de Álcool, Tabaco e Outras Drogas (CRATOD), Brazil's largest center for addiction treatment. A cross-sectional analysis was performed with the data obtained. RESULTS: Adulterants were found in 97% of the analyzed hair samples. The most prevalent adulterant was lidocaine (92%), followed by phenacetin (69%) and levamisole (31%). CONCLUSION: Adulterants were widely prevalent in hair samples from crack users treated at CRATOD: at least one adulterant was present in virtually all the hair samples collected. This points to a need to monitor adverse effects in the clinical setting in order to provide this high-risk group of patients with prompt and effective care related to the acute and chronic complications associated with these adulterants.

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Abstract Introduction Brazil is the world's biggest consumer of crack cocaine, and dependence is a major public health issue. This is the first study to investigate the prevalence of potentially harmful adulterants present in hair samples from Brazilian patients with crack cocaine dependence. Method We evaluated adulterants in hair samples extracted by convenience from 100 patients admitted at the 48 hour-observation unit of Centro de Referência de Álcool, Tabaco e Outras Drogas (CRATOD), Brazil's largest center for addiction treatment. A cross-sectional analysis was performed with the data obtained. Results Adulterants were found in 97% of the analyzed hair samples. The most prevalent adulterant was lidocaine (92%), followed by phenacetin (69%) and levamisole (31%). Conclusion Adulterants were widely prevalent in hair samples from crack users treated at CRATOD: at least one adulterant was present in virtually all the hair samples collected. This points to a need to monitor adverse effects in the clinical setting in order to provide this high-risk group of patients with prompt and effective care related to the acute and chronic complications associated with these adulterants.

Resumo Introdução O Brasil é o maior consumidor mundial de crack, e a dependência é um grande problema de saúde pública. Este é o primeiro estudo a investigar a prevalência de adulterantes potencialmente nocivos presentes em amostras de cabelo de pacientes brasileiros com dependência de crack. Métodos Foram avaliados adulterantes em amostras de cabelos extraídos por conveniência de 100 pacientes internados na unidade de observação de 48 horas do Centro de Referência de Álcool, Tabaco e Outras Drogas (CRATOD), o maior centro de tratamento de dependência do Brasil. Uma análise transversal foi realizada com os dados obtidos. Resultados Foram encontrados adulterantes em 97% das amostras de cabelo analisadas. O adulterante mais prevalente foi a lidocaína (92%), seguida da fenacetina (69%) e levamisol (31%). Conclusão Os adulterantes foram amplamente prevalentes em amostras de cabelo de usuários de crack tratados no CRATOD: pelo menos um adulterante estava presente em praticamente todas as amostras de cabelo coletadas. Isso aponta para a necessidade de monitorar os efeitos adversos no ambiente clínico, a fim de proporcionar a esse grupo de pacientes de alto risco cuidados imediatos e efetivos relacionados às complicações agudas e crônicas associadas a esses adulterantes.

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The presence of cocaine and its metabolites and by-products has been identified in different aquatic matrices, making crack cocaine the target of recent studies. The aim of this study was to evaluate the sublethal effects of crack on the brown mussel Perna perna. Mussels were exposed to three concentrations of crack cocaine (0.5, 5.0, and 50.0 µg L-1) for 168 h. Gills, digestive glands, and hemolymph were extracted and analyzed after three different exposure times using a suite of biomarkers (EROD, DBF, GST, GPX, LPO, DNA damage, ChE, and lysosomal membrane stability [LMS]). After 48 and 96 h of exposure, EROD, DBF, GST, GPX activities and DNA strand breaks in the gills increased significantly after 48 and 96 h of exposure. Alterations in LMS were also observed in the mussels exposed to all crack concentrations after 96 and 168 h. Our results demonstrated that crack cocaine is metabolized by CYP-like and GST activities in the gills. GPX was not able to prevent primary genetic damage, and cytotoxic effects in the hemocytes were also observed in a dose- and time-dependent response. Our study shows that the introduction of illicit drugs into coastal ecosystems must be considered a threat to marine organisms.

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The use of oral fluid (OF) as an alternative specimen for drug analysis has become very popular in forensic toxicology. Many clinical studies have evaluated the correlations between concentrations of cocaine and its metabolites in OF and other matrices, but results have shown high variability. In addition, there are no data available regarding the correlations between biomarkers of crack-cocaine use in different matrices. This study evaluated the relationship between concentrations of cocaine/crack-cocaine biomarkers in OF, urine and plasma samples collected from cocaine users. All samples were analyzed for the presence of cocaine (COC), benzoylecgonine (BZE) and anhydroecgonine (AEC) by a validated liquid chromatography-mass spectrometry method. Median COC, BZE and AEC concentrations ranged from 4.20 to 33.26 ng/mL, from 13.03 to 3,615.86 ng/mL and from 7.40 to 1,892.5 ng/mL across matrices, respectively. The relationship between drug concentrations in OF versus plasma (OF/P) and OF versus urine (OF/U) was evaluated by their coefficients of determination (R2). Least-squares regression analyses demonstrated significant correlations between OF/P and OF/U for cocaine and BE (P < 0.05), with R2 = 0.17, 0.07 for cocaine and R2 = 0.73, 0.45 for BE, respectively. The correlation coefficients (r) found for BZE, COC and AEC in OF/P and OF/U were 0.85 and 0.67 (P < 0.05); 0.41 and 0.26 (P < 0.05); and 0.30 and -0.37 (P > 0.05), respectively. Many factors contribute to the variability of drug correlation ratios in studies involving random samples, including uncertainty about the time of last administration and dosage. Overall, we found significant R2 values for COC and BZE in OF/P and OF/U, but not for AEC. Despite the good correlations found in some cases, especially for BZE, the large variation in drug concentrations seen in this work suggests that OF concentrations should not be used to estimate concentrations of COC, BZE or AEC in plasma and/or urine.

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O consumo mundial de cocaína vem crescendo e no Brasil já são estimados mais de 2 milhões de usuários, destes 370 mil usam regularmente o crack. A cocaína, em suas diversas formas, é um psicoestimulante com alto potencial de abuso e a forma fumada causa à seus usuários mais complicações de saúde do que as demais formas. Muitas dessas complicações estão relacionadas às funções cognitivas, como comprometimento da atenção e memória. O usuário de crack, no ato de fumar, está sujeito tanto à ação da cocaína volatilizada quanto a dos seus produtos de pirólise, principalmente da anidroecgnonina metil éster (AEME). Considerando que pouco se conhece a respeito da AEME, ou de sua associação com cocaína, que os distúrbios cognitivos podem estar relacionados à morte neuronal e que o hipocampo é uma das principais estruturas encefálicas relacionada com cognição e memória, este trabalho visou investigar as vias de ativação de morte celular decorrente das exposições à 1 mM de AEME, 2 mM de cocaína, bem como da associação de ambas (C + A), por 3, 6 e 12 h. Para tanto, utilizamos neurônios hipocampais de embriões de rato no 18º dia embrionário (E18) que foram mantidos em cultura por até 7 dias (DIV7), quando foram feitas as exposições. Nossos resultados mostraram que em 3 h a cocaína e a AEME promoveram aumento de atividade enzimática (pelo teste de MTT) que se reverteu ao longo de 12 h. Além disso, AEME aumentou na permeabilidade da membrana plasmática em 6 h que se manteve em 12 h. Embora essas alterações tenham ocorrido em 3 h e 6 h, caspase-8 se ativou apenas em 12 h, ativando também a sinalização apoptótica com a externalização de FS. A cocaína ativou o processo autofágico a partir de 3 h aumentando a quantificação de LC3 II, mas apresentou redução de células com vesículas ácidas em 6 h e 12 h, sugerindo que esta promova morte neuronal por causar falha no fluxo autofágico. A AEME apresentou somente aumento de células com vesículas ácidas em 3 h, revertendo-se já em 6 h, indicando que o processo autofágico só se fez presente no primeiro horário, dando vez à programação de apoptose celular, por ativação da via extrínseca. A associação dessas substâncias apresentou-se mais neurotóxica do que as substâncias isoladas, com redução de células íntegras a partir de 3 h de exposição, ativação de caspase-8 e externalização de FS em 6 h, sem envolver o sistema autofágico. Além disso, as características morfológicas observadas em 6 h, como o aumento do tamanho do núcleo e do corpo celular que se tornaram picnóticos em 12 h, podem sugerir que a neurotoxicidade induzida por C + A seja por necroptose, onde a ativação de caspases resulta em um processo tipo necrótico. Assim, concluímos que, embora a literatura mostre morte neuronal por apoptose a partir de 24 h de exposição para cocaína e para AEME, as respostas celulares que levam à este fim iniciam-se já em 12 h, por ativação da via extrínseca e a associação destas substâncias é ainda mais neurotóxica, iniciando a sinalização de morte já em 6 h e induzindo uma morfologia tipo necrótica

Cocaine market is increasing all around the world. In Brazil it is estimated that almost 2 million people make usage of this substance which 370 thousand people use the crack form. Cocaine is a psychostimulant with large potential for abuse and the smokable form produces more health problems than the other routes of use, mainly in the cognitive field related to compromising attention, memory and decision take. The crack users are exposed to both volatized cocaine and their pyrolysis products, which the main product is the anhydroecgonine methyl ester (AEME). Considering that the cognitive disturbs could be related to neurons death, the memory functions are also related to the hippocampal functions, and little is known about the AEME neurotoxicity or even the combination of cocaine and AEME in cell fate, our study aims to characterize the time and pathways related to the hippocampal neurotoxicity induced by 2 mM of cocaine, 1 mM of AEME and the association (C + A) of both substances during 3 h, 6 h and 12 h of exposure. Our results showed that cocaine and AEME increased enzymatic activity (MTT test) in 3 h but it reversed during 12 h of exposure. Moreover, AEME increased cell permeability in 6 h keeping it until 12 h. Although theses early alterations, both substances activated caspase -8 after 12 h when early apoptosis was also observed by the FS externalization. Cocaine activated the autophagic process at 3 h increasing the LC3 II quantification, but decreased the number of cell with acid vesicle at 6 h and 12 h, suggesting neuronal death due to failure in the autophagic flux. AEME showed increased in cell number with acid vesicle only in 3 h which returned after 6 h suggesting that the autophagic process gave place to the apoptotic program starting from the extrinsic pathway. The association of cocaine and AEME was shown more neurotoxic than them alone, decreasing the number of integral cells after 3 h, activating caspase -8 and promoting FS externalization after 6 h without involving the autophagy. In addition, taking the C + A morphology in 6 h, where it was observed increasing of nucleus and soma size that became pyknotic at 12 h, we suggest that the neuronal death could occur by necroptosis because this composition activated caspase -8 and resulted in necrotic like morphology. Thus, we conclude that cocaine- and AEME-induced apoptosis neuronal death starts in 12 h of exposure by the extrinsic pathway and the association of both substances is more neurotoxic than they alone, starting earlier after 6 h and resulting in a necrotic-like morphology

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South American 'crack' cocaine, produced directly from coca leaf, can be distinguished from US domestically produced crack on the basis of occluded solvent profiles. In addition, analysis of domestically produced crack indicates the solvents that were used for cocaine hydrochloride (HCl) processing in South America. Samples of cocaine base (N=3) from South America and cocaine from the USA (N=157 base, N=88 HCl) were analyzed by headspace-gas chromatography-mass spectrometry (HS-GC-MS) to determine their solvent profiles. Each cocaine HCl sample was then converted to crack cocaine using the traditional crack production method and re-examined by HS-GC-MS. The resulting occluded solvent profiles were then compared to their original HCl solvent profiles. Analysis of the corresponding crack samples confirmed the same primary processing solvents found in the original HCl samples, but at reduced levels. Domestically seized crack samples also contained reduced levels of base-to-HCl conversion solvents. In contrast, analysis of South American crack samples confirmed the presence of low to high boiling hydrocarbons and no base-to-HCl conversion solvents. The presented study showed analysis of crack cocaine samples provides data on which processing solvents were originally utilized in the production of cocaine HCl in South America, prior to conversion to crack cocaine. Determination of processing solvents provides valuable information to the counter-drug intelligence community and assists the law enforcement community in determining cocaine distribution and trafficking routes throughout the world.

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For well over a decade, researchers in Porto Alegre, Brazil, have been documenting the extent of the AIDS epidemic in the region, with a specific focus on the linkages between drug use and HIV seropositivity. Virtually all of the studies conducted during those years found injection drug use (IDU) to be the major vector for HIV seropositivity in this population. However, recent research found that the number of IDUs had declined significantly. Qualitative interviews and focus groups suggested many reasons for this decline: (1) many had died, because they had never heard of AIDS or HIV, and were unaware of how HIV is transmitted. As a result, they had become infected through the sharing of injection paraphernalia. (2) The quality of street cocaine had declined, making injection difficult. (3) Because of a fear of AIDS, some shifted to the smoking of crack, which had become a newly availability commodity in the street culture. Within this context, this article describes the qualitative data describing the decline of cocaine injecting and the corresponding emergence of crack use in Porto Alegre, Brazil, and related HIV risks.

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