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Theories of language development-informed largely by studies of Western, middleclass infants-have highlighted the language that caregivers direct to children as a key driver of language learning. However, some have argued that language development unfolds similarly across environmental contexts, including those in which childdirected language is scarce. This raises the possibility that children are able to learn from other sources of language in their environments, particularly the language directed to others in their environment. We explore this hypothesis with infants in an indigenous Tseltal-speaking community in Southern Mexico who are rarely spoken to, yet have the opportunity to overhear a great deal of other-directed language by virtue of being carried on their mothers' backs. Adapting a previously established gaze-tracking method for detecting early word knowledge to our field setting, we find that Tseltal infants exhibit implicit knowledge of common nouns (Exp. 1), analogous to their US peers who are frequently spoken to. Moreover, they exhibit comprehension of Tseltal honorific terms that are exclusively used to greet adults in the community (Exp. 2), representing language that could only have been learned through overhearing. In so doing, Tseltal infants demonstrate an ability to discriminate words with similar meanings and perceptually similar referents at an earlier age than has been shown among Western children. Together, these results suggest that for some infants, learning from overhearing may be an important path toward developing language.

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Language learners track conditional probabilities to find words in continuous speech and to map words and objects across ambiguous contexts. It remains unclear, however, whether learners can leverage the structure of the linguistic input to do both tasks at the same time. To explore this question, we combined speech segmentation and cross-situational word learning into a single task. In Experiment 1, when adults (N = 60) simultaneously segmented continuous speech and mapped the newly segmented words to objects, they demonstrated better performance than when either task was performed alone. However, when the speech stream had conflicting statistics, participants were able to correctly map words to objects, but were at chance level on speech segmentation. In Experiment 2, we used a more sensitive speech segmentation measure to find that adults (N = 35), exposed to the same conflicting speech stream, correctly identified non-words as such, but were still unable to discriminate between words and part-words. Again, mapping was above chance. Our study suggests that learners can track multiple sources of statistical information to find and map words to objects in noisy environments. It also prompts questions on how to effectively measure the knowledge arising from these learning experiences.

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Language learners can rely on phonological and semantic information to learn novel words. Using a cross-situational word learning paradigm, we explored the role of phonotactic probabilities on word learning in ambiguous contexts. Brazilian-Portuguese speaking adults (N = 30) were exposed to two sets of word-object pairs. Words from one set of labels had slightly higher phonotactic probabilities than words from the other set. By tracking co-occurrences of words and objects, participants were able to learn word-object mappings similarly across both sets. Our findings contrast with studies showing a facilitative effect of phonotactic probability on word learning in non-ambiguous contexts.

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In the present study we explored the postlearning changes in a novel word's definition using a cue-induced memory reactivation. Native speakers of Spanish (N = 373) learned low-frequency words with their corresponding definitions. The following day, reactivated groups were exposed to a reminder and provided a subjective assessment of reactivation for each word, while control groups did not receive a reactivation. Study A demonstrated that memory reactivation enhances both explicit recall and semantic integration of new meanings. Study B investigated the effect of memory reactivation in the modification of the new meanings, through three different experiments. Results show an improvement of the updated definitions according to each word's reactivation strength. In addition, congruence with previous knowledge was suggested to be a boundary condition, while consolidation time had a positive modulatory effect. Our findings call attention to reactivation as a factor allowing for malleability as well as persistence of long-term memories for words.

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Abstract Language learners can rely on phonological and semantic information to learn novel words. Using a cross-situational word learning paradigm, we explored the role of phonotactic probabilities on word learning in ambiguous contexts. Brazilian-Portuguese speaking adults (N = 30) were exposed to two sets of word-object pairs. Words from one set of labels had slightly higher phonotactic probabilities than words from the other set. By tracking co-occurrences of words and objects, participants were able to learn word-object mappings similarly across both sets. Our findings contrast with studies showing a facilitative effect of phonotactic probability on word learning in non-ambiguous contexts.

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Human children will select a novel object from among a group of known objects when presented with a novel object name. This disambiguation by exclusion may facilitate new name-object mappings and may play a role in the rapid word learning shown by young children. Animals including dogs, apes, monkeys, and birds make similar exclusion choices. However, evidence regarding whether children and nonhuman animals learn new associations through choice by exclusion is mixed. In the present study we dissociate choice by exclusion from learning by exclusion in rhesus monkeys using a paired-associate task. In experiment 1, monkeys demonstrated choice by exclusion by choosing a novel comparison image from among known comparison images when presented with a novel sample image. In experiment 2, monkeys failed to benefit from choice by exclusion in learning new sets of paired associates. Monkeys learned new sets of four paired associates by trial and error alone or by a combination of exclusion and trial and error. Despite choosing correctly by exclusion on almost 100% of opportunities, monkeys did not learn any faster by exclusion than by trial and error alone. These results indicate that monkeys chose, but do not learn, through exclusion, highlighting the importance of separately evaluating choice and learning in studies of exclusion in word learning.

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En esta investigación estudiamos el aprendizaje de palabras a través de imágenes. Presentamos tres estudios cuasi-experimentales. En los Estudios 1 y 2, comparamos la ejecución de niños y niñas de tres años y de adultos. Primero enseñamos un seudo-sustantivo (pompe) aplicado a un objeto novedoso. Luego, enseñamos la palabra utilizándola como adjetivo referido a una propiedad no-convencional. En el Estudio 3, contrastamos el aprendizaje de adjetivos por personas adultas, con o sin el sufijo adjetivador ado (pompe-pompeado). Los resultados muestran que los niños y las niñas utilizaron información contextual para aprender las palabras, mientras que los adultos le dieron más relevancia a la lingüística, resultándoles difícil aprender el adjetivo sin sufijo. Concluimos que, bajo algunas circunstancias, los niños y las niñas son aprendices más eficaces que los adultos. Estos hallazgos señalan la importancia de incluir personas adultas en estudios de desarrollo.

This study investigates children’s and adults’ learning of words in apicture learning context. Three quasi-experimental studies are presented. Studies 1 and 2 comparethe performance of three-year-old children with that of adults. First, we teach teaches a new nounapplied to an unknown object (pompe). Then, we teach the same word, but instead using it as anadjective that refers to a non-conventional property. Study 3 contrasted adults’ learning of twoadjectives with or without the spanish suffix ado (pompe-pompeado). Taken together these results show that children use contextual information to learn words, while adults place more relevance onlinguistic information. As a result, the absence of a suffix made learning the adjective more difficult.We conclude that, under some conditions, children are more efficient than adults. These findings showthe importance of ensuring that adults’ inclusion is part of development studies.

Esta investigação estuda a aprendizagem de palavras mediante imagens.Três estudos quase-experimentais são apresentados. Os Estudos 1 e 2 comparam a execução decrianças de três anos e adultos. Primeiro, ensinamos um substantivo desconhecido (pompe) aplicado a um objeto inovador. Depois, nós ensinamos a palavra, mas usada como adjetivo que se refere a uma propriedade não-convencional. O Estudo 3, contrasta a aprendizagem por parte de adultos de adjetivos, com ou sem o sufixo adjetivador “ado” (pompe-pompeado). Os resultados mostram que as crianças usaram informação contextual para aprender as palavras, enquanto os adultos deram mais importância às linguísticas, para o qual a ausência do sufixo dificultou a aprendizagem do adjetivo.Concluímos que, dado algumas circunstâncias, as crianças são mais efetivas que os adultos. Esses resultados mostram a importância de incluir adultos em estudos de desenvolvimento.

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A leitura compartilhada de histórias é uma forma eficiente de promover a aprendizagem de vocabulário por crianças, mas os processos básicos envolvidos nessa aprendizagem ainda precisam ser esclarecidos. O objetivo deste estudo foi investigar a influência de dicas sociais na aprendizagem de palavras durante a leitura de livros, e se as novas relações palavras-figuras apresentadas nas histórias sustentariam um desempenho por exclusão posterior, diante de figuras desconhecidas. Duas histórias ilustradas não comerciais, contendo duas pseudopalavras cada, foram lidas com e sem a apresentação de dicas sociais para 12 crianças de 3 anos, em um delineamento de medidas repetidas. Sondas de emparelhamento, exclusão e nomeação avaliaram a aprendizagem dessas pseudopalavras. O desempenho das crianças não diferiu em relação à aprendizagem das pseudopalavras nas duas condições de leitura (com apresentação de dica social e sem dicas), e todas apresentaram desempenho por exclusão nas sondas planejadas. Esses resultados confirmam que a situação de leitura compartilhada promove aprendizagem de novas relações entre palavras e figuras, mas deixam em aberto o papel de dicas sociais nesse processo.

Shared story reading is an effective way to promote the learning of vocabulary for children, however, the basic processes involved in this learning have yet to be clarified. The aim of this study was to investigate the influence of social cues on word learning while reading books, and whether the new word-picture relationships presented in the stories sustain subsequent performance by exclusion, given unknown pictures. Two non-commercial illustrated stories, containing two pseudowords each, were read with and without the presentation of social cues for 12 children, 3 years of age, in a repeated measures design. Matching, exclusion and naming probes evaluated the learning of these pseudowords. The performance of the children did not differ in relation to the learning of the pseudowords in both reading conditions (with presentation of social cues and without cues), and all presented performance by exclusion in the planned probes. These results confirm that the shared reading situation promotes the learning of new relationships between words and pictures, however, do not verify the role of social cues in this process.

La lectura compartida de libros es una manera eficaz de promover el aprendizaje de vocabulario de los niños, pero los procesos básicos que intervienen en este aprendizaje todavía necesitan ser aclarado. El objetivo de este estudio fue investigar la influencia de pistas sociales en el aprendizaje de palabras durante la lectura de libros, y se nuevas relaciones nombre-figuras presentado en las historias, mantienen subsecuenteresponder por exclusión, delantenuevas figuras desconocidas. Dos historias ilustradas no comerciales, que contienen dos pseudopalabras cada uno, fueron leídas con y sin la presentación de pistas sociales a 12 niños de 3 años. Pruebas de aprendizaje, exclusión y respuesta verbal evaluaron el aprendizaje de estos pseudopalabras. El desempeño de los niños no difirió en relación al aprendizaje de la pseudopalabra, bajo dos condiciones de la lectura, pero todos mostraron respuesta de exclusión en las pruebas previstas. Estos resultados confirman que la situación lectura compartida promueve el aprendizaje de vocabulario, pero dejan abierta la función de laspistas sociales en este proceso.

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Cross-situational word learning is based on the notion that a learner can determine the referent of a word by finding something in common across many observed uses of that word. Here we propose an adaptive learning algorithm that contains a parameter that controls the strength of the reinforcement applied to associations between concurrent words and referents, and a parameter that regulates inference, which includes built-in biases, such as mutual exclusivity, and information of past learning events. By adjusting these parameters so that the model predictions agree with data from representative experiments on cross-situational word learning, we were able to explain the learning strategies adopted by the participants of those experiments in terms of a trade-off between reinforcement and inference. These strategies can vary wildly depending on the conditions of the experiments. For instance, for fast mapping experiments (i.e., the correct referent could, in principle, be inferred in a single observation) inference is prevalent, whereas for segregated contextual diversity experiments (i.e., the referents are separated in groups and are exhibited with members of their groups only) reinforcement is predominant. Other experiments are explained with more balanced doses of reinforcement and inference.

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A pesquisa em Psicologia do Desenvolvimento no Brasil tem realizado importantes avanços nos últimos anos, no entanto, um processo básico ainda se encontra ausente das discussões entre os pesquisadores brasileiros na área: o desenvolvimento lexical. O presente artigo tem como objetivo fornecer uma revisão da literatura, demonstrando como estudos sobre o aprendizado inicial de palavras podem contribuir para a nossa compreensão atual do desenvolvimento infantil. Os principais avanços da pesquisa sobre desenvolvimento lexical são discutidos, assim como os principais desafios encontrados pelos pesquisadores dedicados ao tema. Espera-se também que este artigo possa servir como ponto de partida para pesquisadores brasileiros interessados em investigar esse processo em crianças falantes do português.

Developmental Psychology research in Brazil has made substantial progress in recent years, however, a basic process remains absent in discussions among Brazilian researchers in the area lexical development. The present paper is aimed at providing a literature review and showing how studies on word learning can contribute to our current understanding of child development. The main findings on lexical development are discussed as well as the main challenges found by researchers who are dedicated to the topic. It is also hoped that this paper can serve as a starting point for Brazilian researchers interested in investigating the process among Portuguese-speaking children.

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