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Microplastics are known to accumulate in sediment beds of aquatic environments where they can be buried. Once buried they can remobilize due to high energetic events, entering the water column again. Here, turbulence induced by an oscillating grid device was used to investigate the remobilization of microfibers (MF) buried into the sediment bed. Four different types of plastic fibers commonly used for several industrial applications (PET, PP, PA and LDPE) and two types of soils (cohesive and non-cohesive) were investigated. Particles were in depth characterized via 3D reconstruction to estimate important parameters like the Corey shape factor and the settling velocity. Experimental runs explored a wide range of shear stresses. Measurements were taken at different time steps (between 15 min and 240 min from the start of each run). The results have shown that the remobilization of MFs is directly proportional to the value of the shear rate and the duration of the disturbance. Also, buoyant MFs were found more prone to remobilize respect to the denser ones. Drawing from experimental observations of the key parameters affecting MF remobilization, a non-dimensional predictive model was developed. A comparison with previous studies was performed to validate the model in order to predict MF remobilization in aquatic environments.

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Plastic particle pollution has threatened the well-being of seawater ecosystems over the past decades. Therefore, understanding, modeling and (potentially) predicting the dynamics of microplastics and biogenic particles in ocean turbulence is of utmost importance to help develop mitigation strategies and propose technological solutions ultimately aimed at safeguarding global water systems. This is particularly significant for microplastics in the upper-ocean layer. To that end, this work presents a comprehensive and openly accessible dataset carefully designed to explore the interplay between the flow physics of particle-laden turbulence and the physicochemical effects of biofilm stickiness. The dataset comprises nine point-particle direct numerical simulations of fluid flow featuring microplastic and biogenic debris within a periodic three-dimensional flow domain. In all cases, the chosen turbulent intensity and microparticle properties represent conditions observed in the upper-ocean layer. This data repository aims to facilitate in-depth exploration, modeling and prediction of the intricate flow physics observed in marine microplastics, particularly regarding their distribution and aggregation.

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Nanosized activated carbon (NAC) as emerging engineered nanomaterials may interact with nanoplastics prevalent in aquatic environments to affect their fate and transport. This study investigated the effects of particle property (charge and concentration), water chemistry [electrolytes, pH, humic acid (HA), and sodium alginate (SA)], and hydrodynamic condition [wave (i.e., sonication) and turbulence (i.e., stirring)] on the heteroaggregation, disaggregation, and migration of NAC with positively charged amino-modified polystyrene (APS) or negatively charged bare polystyrene (BPS) nanoplastics. The homoaggregation rate of APS was slower than its heteroaggregation rate with NAC, with critical coagulation concentrations (CCC) decreasing at higher NAC concentrations. However, the homoaggregation rate of BPS was intermediate between its heteroaggregation rates under low (10 mg/L) and high (40 mg/L) NAC concentrations. The heteroaggregation rate of APS+NAC enhanced as pH increasing from 3 to 10, whereas the opposite trend was observed for BPS+NAC. In NaCl solution or at CaCl2 concentration below 2.5 mM, HA stabilized APS+NAC and BPS+NAC via steric hindrance more effectively than SA. Above 2.5 mM CaCl2, SA destabilized APS+NAC and BPS+NAC by calcium bridging more strongly than HA. The migration process of heteroaggregates was simulated in nearshore environments. The simulation suggests that without hydrodynamic disturbance, APS+NAC (971 m) may travel farther than BPS+NAC (901 m). Mild wave (30-s sonication) and intense turbulence (1500-rpm stirring) could induce disaggregation of heteroaggregates, thus potentially extending the migration distances of APS+NAC and BPS+NAC to 1611 and 2160 m, respectively. Conversely, intense wave (20-min sonication) and mild turbulence (150-rpm stirring) may further promote aggregation of heteroaggregates, shortening the migration distances of APS+NAC and BPS+NAC to 262 and 552 m, respectively. Particle interactions mainly involved van der Waals attraction, electrostatic repulsion, steric hindrance, calcium bridging, π-π interactions, hydrogen bonding, and hydrophobic interactions. These findings highlight the important influence of NAC on the fate, transport, and risks of nanoplastics in aquatic environments.

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Wildfires have caused immense damage to the environment, property and human safety in recent years. Fortunately, the deployment of firefighting aircraft, particularly water bombers, has emerged as one of the most effective strategies for combating wildfires. However, the intricate environment of forest fire sites, characterized by thermal turbulence and canyon winds, presents a formidable flight risk for firefighting aircraft. To address this issue, this study conducted a comprehensive risk assessment of firefighting aircraft operating in a wildfire environment, analyzing the impact of thermal turbulence and canyon winds using a finite element simulation method. This approach not only bridges the research gap in the field of flight safety but also evaluates the environmental risks encountered by firefighting aircraft when entering forest fire sites. Our findings underscore thermal turbulence and canyon winds as potential hazards for aircraft flying over mountainous terrain, elucidating the effect of thermal turbulence on aircraft engine intakes and quantifying the total lift loss incurred during encounters with canyon winds featuring non-uniform airflow velocities. Specifically, thermal turbulence can induce instability and vibration in aircraft engines, whereas canyon winds can generate updrafts and downdrafts that may compromise aircraft structures or lead to lift loss. Furthermore, we cite several references to emphasize the multifaceted risks associated with the forest fire site environment, encompassing temperature gradients, thunderstorms, and air pollution. Such comprehensive wildfire data can be invaluable in assessing the flight safety of firefighting aircraft during water-dropping missions in forest fire scenarios.

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Small bubbles in fluids rise to the surface due to Archimede's force. Remarkably, in turbulent flows this process is severely hindered by the presence of vortex filaments, which act as moving potential wells, dynamically trapping light particles and bubbles. Quantifying the statistical weights and roles of vortex filaments in turbulence is, however, still an outstanding experimental and computational challenge due to their small scale, fast chaotic motion, and transient nature. Here we show that, under the influence of a modulated oscillatory forcing, the collective bubble behavior switches from a dynamically localized to a delocalized state. Additionally, we find that by varying the forcing frequency and amplitude, a remarkable resonant phenomenon between light particles and small-scale vortex filaments emerges, likening particle behavior to a forced damped oscillator. We discuss how these externally actuated bubbles can be used as a type of microscopic probe to investigate the space-time statistical properties of the smallest turbulence scales, allowing to quantitatively measure physical characteristics of vortex filaments. We develop a superposition model that is in excellent agreement with the simulation data of the particle dynamics which reveals the fraction of localized/delocalized particles as well as characteristics of the potential landscape induced by vortices in turbulence. Our approach paves the way for innovative ways to accurately measure turbulent properties and to the possibility to control light particles and bubble motions in turbulence with potential applications to oceanography, medical imaging, drug/gene delivery, chemical reactions, wastewater treatment, and industrial mixing.

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Turbulence and sound are important cues for oyster reef larval recruitment. Numerous studies have found a relationship between turbulence intensity and swimming behaviors of marine larvae, while others have documented the importance of sounds in enhancing larval recruitment to oyster reefs. However, the relationship between turbulence and the reef soundscape is not well understood. In this study we made side-by-side acoustic Doppler velocimeter turbulence measurements and hydrophone soundscape recordings over 2 intertidal oyster reefs (1 natural and 1 restored) and 1 adjacent bare mudflat as a reference. Sound pressure levels (SPL) were similar across all three sites, although SPL > 2000 Hz was highest at the restored reef, likely due to its larger area that contained a greater number of sound-producing organisms. Flow noise (FN), defined as the mean of pressure fluctuations recorded by the hydrophone at f < 100 Hz, was significantly related to mean flow speed, turbulent kinetic energy, and turbulence dissipation rate (ε), agreeing with theoretical calculations for turbulence. Our results also show a similar relationship between ε and FN to what has been previously reported for ε vs. downward larval swimming velocity (w b ), with both FN and w b demonstrating rapid growth at ε > 0.1 cm2 s-3. These results suggest that reef turbulence and sounds may attract oyster larvae in complementary and synergistic ways.

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OBJECTIVE : The treatment of mitral valve prolapse involves two distinct repair techniques: chordal replacement (Neochordae technique) and leaflet resection (Resection technique). However, there is still a debate in the literature about which is the optimal one. In this context, we performed an image-based computational fluid dynamic study to evaluate blood dynamics in the two surgical techniques. METHODS : We considered a healthy subject (H) and two patients (N and R) who underwent surgery for prolapse of the posterior leaflet and were operated with the Neochordae and Resection technique, respectively. Computational Fluid Dynamics (CFD) was employed with prescribed motion of the entire left heart coming from cine-MRI images, with a Large Eddy Simulation model to describe the transition to turbulence and a resistive method for managing valve dynamics. We created three different virtual scenarios where the operated mitral valves were inserted in the same left heart geometry of the healthy subject to study the differences attributed only to the two techniques. RESULTS : We compared the three scenarios by quantitatively analyzing ventricular velocity patterns and pressures, transition to turbulence, and the ventricle ability to prevent thrombi formation. From these results, we found that the operative techniques affected the ventricular blood dynamics in different ways, with variations attributed to the reduced mobility of the Resection posterior leaflet. Specifically, the Resection technique resulted in turbulent forces, related with the risk of hemolysis formation, up to 640 Pa, while the other two scenarios exhibited a maximum of 240 Pa. Moreover, in correspondence of the ventricular apex, the Resection technique reduced the areas with low velocity to 15%, whereas the healthy case and the Neochordae case maintained these areas at 30 and 48%, respectively. Our findings suggest that the Neochordae technique developed a more physiological flow with respect to the Resection technique. CONCLUSION: Resection technique gives rise to a different direction of the mitral jet during diastole increasing the ability to washout the ventricular apex preventing from thrombi formation, but at the same time it promotes turbulence formation that is associated with ventricular effort and risk of hemolysis.

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This paper is concerned with the problem of regularization by noise of systems of reaction-diffusion equations with mass control. It is known that strong solutions to such systems of PDEs may blow-up in finite time. Moreover, for many systems of practical interest, establishing whether the blow-up occurs or not is an open question. Here we prove that a suitable multiplicative noise of transport type has a regularizing effect. More precisely, for both a sufficiently noise intensity and a high spectrum, the blow-up of strong solutions is delayed up to an arbitrary large time. Global existence is shown for the case of exponentially decreasing mass. The proofs combine and extend recent developments in regularization by noise and in the L p ( L q ) -approach to stochastic PDEs, highlighting new connections between the two areas.

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The programme to design plasma scenarios for the Spherical Tokamak for Energy Production (STEP), a reactor concept aiming at net electricity production, seeks to exploit the inherent advantages of the spherical tokamak (ST) while making conservative assumptions about plasma performance. This approach is motivated by the large gap between present-day STs and future burning plasmas based on this concept. It is concluded that plasma exhaust in such a device is most likely to be manageable in a double null (DN) configuration, and that high core performance is favoured by positive triangularity (PT) plasmas with an elevated central safety factor. Based on a full technical and physics assessment of external heating and current drive (CD) systems, it was decided that the external CD is provided most effectively by microwaves. Operation with active resistive wall mode (RWM) stabilization as well as high elongation is needed for the most compact solution. The gap between existing devices and STEP is most pronounced in the area of core transport, owing to high normalized plasma pressure in the latter which changes qualitatively the nature of the turbulence controlling transport. Plugging this gap will require dedicated experiments, particularly on high-performance STs, and the development of reduced models that faithfully represent turbulent transport at high normalized pressure. Plasma scenarios in STEP will also need to be such that edge localized modes (ELMs) either do not occur or are small enough to be compatible with material lifetime limits. The high current needed for a power plant-relevant plasma leads to the unavoidable generation of high runaway electron beam current during a disruption, where novel mitigation techniques may be needed. This article is part of the theme issue 'Delivering Fusion Energy - The Spherical Tokamak for Energy Production (STEP)'.

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The database contains detailed statistics of compressible turbulent plane channel (TPC) flow, obtained from direct numerical simulation (DNS), with a very-high-order massively parallel solver of the compressible Navier-Stokes equations. It contains datasets for 25 different flow conditions determined by the corresponding HCB friction Reynolds number and centerline Mach number, covering the ranges 100 ⪅ R e τ ★ ⪅ 1000 and 0.3 ⪅ M ¯ CL x ⪅ 2.5 . All calculations are for strictly isothermal wall conditions at temperature T w = 298 K in a medium-size (MB) computational box ( 8 π δ × 2 δ × 4 π δ where 2 δ is the channel-height). Statistics (moments and pdfs) were collected after the elimination of the transient, and post-processed to create the dataset, which contains only plain text (.txt) space-separated multicolumn files for ease of use. The dataset for each flow-condition is tagged by the values of ( R e τ ★ , M ¯ CL x ) and is organized in 4 directories: (0) global data files, (1) profiles and budgets (meanflow profiles, velocity-moments up to 6-order, budgets of Reynolds-stresses transport, turbulent fluxes appearing in transport equations for velocity-moments and thermodynamic quantities, correlation coefficients between thermodynamic variables, and skewness and flatness profiles) as a function of the wall-distance, (2) single-variable probability density functions (pdfs) for numerous flow quantities at selected wall-normal distances, and (3) two-variable joint pdfs for numerous couples of flow-quantities at the same selected wall-normal distances.

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In this study, we report observations of propagating radial carpet beams (RCBs) through a turbulent atmosphere at ground level with a 120 m path length. RCBs are a class of nondiffracting, accelerating, self-healing, and self-amplifying beams, and generated in the diffraction of a plane wave from amplitude/phase radial gratings having different spoke numbers. Observations were made at different times of the day. The intensity profile of an RCB becomes complicated when the number of grating spokes used to generate the beam is large, and includes high intensity spots, called main intensity spots (MISs), which are symmetrically placed at the central area around the beam axis and whose number is equal to (twice) the number of spokes of the amplitude (phase) grating used to generate the beam. With the aid of a telescope and a CCD camera, successive frames of the intensity pattern of the RCBs having different levels of structural complexity are recorded at the end of the path. For the data recorded at different times of the day, we calculate the variance of displacements of MISs along the radial direction. We observe that displacements of the MISs increase with increasing mean temperature of the air; on the other hand, as the complexity of the beam intensity pattern increases, the displacements of the MISs decrease. In order to compare the resilience of different RCBs and a well-known structured beam against atmospheric turbulence, we investigate deformation of the intensity profiles of a Laguerre-Gaussian (LG) beam having a topological charge 20 and different RCBs at the end of the path. It is shown that under the same turbulence condition, highly complex RCBs are more resilient to the destructive effects of the atmospheric turbulence. In particular, for the RCBs generated with gratings having 30 spokes and more, the number of MISs of the received intensity patterns is changed by less than 1% even when the turbulence strength is high. But for the LG beam, its intensity ring is clearly broken in different places, which makes it impossible to follow its maximum intensity in the radial direction.

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Hailstorms, characterized by their intensity, are often accompanied by strong winds and heavy rain, posing significant destructive potential. Data indicate that the economic losses caused by hail to buildings, particularly solar panels, have been increasing annually. However, research on the hail resistance of photovoltaic panels has predominantly focused on the isolated effects of hail impacts and wind loads, neglecting the coupling effects between wind and hail. In this study, a device was designed to couple both wind and hail. The effects of turbulence, hail size, and velocity on hail impact behavior were systematically studied and quantified. A predictive formula for the peak load of hail impact on structures was established. The results indicate that the impact of turbulence on hail is significant. When turbulence intensity varies with hail velocity, hail impact force increases as turbulence decreases and hail velocity increases. When both turbulence and hail diameter vary, the impact force of smaller hailstones shows less variation with increasing turbulence. According to variance analysis, hail velocity is the most significant factor affecting hail impact, followed by hail diameter and finally turbulence. The regression equation is given by F = - 0.624 I u + 5116.25 D + 7.85 V hail - 259.709 , where F represents the peak impact force in Newtons (N), I u denotes the turbulence intensity, D is the hail diameter in meters (m), and V hail is the hail velocity in meters per second (m/s).

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The integration of terrestrial- and satellite-based quantum key distribution (QKD) experiments has markedly advanced global-scale quantum networks, showcasing the growing maturity of quantum technologies. Notably, the use of unmanned aerial vehicles (UAVs) as relay nodes has emerged as a promising method to overcome the inherent limitations of fiber-based and low-Earth orbit (LEO) satellite connections. This paper introduces a protocol for measurement-device-independent QKD (MDI-QKD) using photon orbital angular momentum (OAM) encoding, with UAVs as relay platforms. Leveraging UAV mobility, the protocol establishes a secure and efficient link, mitigating threats from untrusted UAVs. Photon OAM encoding addresses reference frame alignment issues exacerbated by UAV jitter. A comprehensive analysis of atmospheric turbulence, state-dependent diffraction (SDD), weather visibility, and pointing errors on free-space OAM-state transmission systems was conducted. This analysis elucidates the relationship between the key generation rate and propagation distance for the proposed protocol. Results indicate that considering SDD significantly decreases the key rate, halving previous data results. Furthermore, the study identifies a maximum channel loss capacity of 26 dB for the UAV relay platform. This result is pivotal in setting realistic parameters for the deployment of UAV-based quantum communications and lays the foundation for practical implementation strategies in the field.

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One of the key advantages of terahertz (THz) communication is its potential for energy efficiency, making it an attractive option for green communication systems. Coherent THz transmission technology has recently been explored in the literature. However, there exist few error performance results for such a wireless link employing coherent THz technology. In this paper, we explore a comprehensive terrestrial channel model designed for wireless line-of-sight communication using THz frequencies. The performance of coherent THz links is analyzed, and it is found to be notably affected by two significant factors, atmospheric turbulence and pointing errors. These could occur between the terahertz transmitter and receiver in terrestrial links. The exact and asymptotic solutions are derived for bit error rate and interrupt probability for binary phase-shift keying coherent THz systems, respectively, over log-normal and Gamma-Gamma turbulent channels. The asymptotic outage probability analysis is also performed. It is shown that the presented results offer a precise estimation of coherent THz transmission performance and its link budget.

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Matter entanglement is a common chaotic structure found in both quantum and classical systems. For classical turbulence, viscous vortices are like sinews in fluid flows, storing and dissipating energy and accommodating strain and stress throughout a complex vortex network. However, to explain how the statistical properties of turbulence arise from elemental vortical structures remains challenging. Here, we use the quantum vortex tangle as a skeleton to generate an instantaneous classical turbulent field with intertwined vortex tubes. Combining the quantum skeleton and tunable vortex thickness makes the synthetic turbulence satisfy key statistical laws, offering valuable insights for elucidating energy cascade and extreme events. By manipulating the elemental structures, we customize turbulence with desired statistical features. This bottom-up approach of designing turbulence provides a testbed for analyzing and modeling turbulence.

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In Free Space Optical (FSO) communication systems, atmospheric turbulence distorts the propagating beams, causing a random fading in the received power. This perturbation can be compensated using a multi-aperture receiver that samples the distorted wavefront on different points and adds the various signals coherently. In this work, we report on an adaptive optical receiver that compensates in real time for scintillation in FSO links. The optical front-end of the receiver is entirely integrated in a silicon photonic chip hosting a 2D Optical Antenna Array and a self-adaptive analog Programmable Optical Processor made of a mesh of tunable Mach-Zehnder interferometers. The photonic chip acts as an adaptive interface to couple turbulent FSO beams to single-mode guided optics, enabling energy and cost-effective operation, scalability to systems with a larger number of apertures, modulation-format and data-protocol transparency, and pluggability with commercial fiber optics transceivers. Experimental results demonstrate the effectiveness of the proposed receiver with optical signals at a data rate of 10 Gbit/s transmitted in indoor FSO links where different turbulent conditions, even stronger than those expected in outdoor links of hundreds of meters, are reproduced.

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In recent research, there has been a significant focus on establishing robust quantum cryptography using the continuous-variable quantum key distribution (CV-QKD) protocol based on Gaussian modulation of coherent states (GMCS). Unlike more stable fiber channels, one challenge faced in free-space quantum channels is the complex transmittance characterized by varying atmospheric turbulence. This complexity poses difficulties in achieving high transmission rates and long-distance communication. In this article, we thoroughly evaluate the performance of the CV-QKD/GMCS system under the effect of individual attacks, considering homodyne detection with both direct and reverse reconciliation techniques. To address the issue of limited detector efficiency, we incorporate the phase-sensitive amplifier (PSA) as a compensating measure. The results show that the CV-QKD/GMCS system with PSA achieves a longer secure distance and a higher key rate compared to the system without PSA, considering both direct and reverse reconciliation algorithms. With an amplifier gain of 10, the reverse reconciliation algorithm achieves a secure distance of 5 km with a secret key rate of 10-1 bits/pulse. On the other hand, direct reconciliation reaches a secure distance of 2.82 km.

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To find out the most contaminated street region and protect the pedestrian with the photo-catalytic equipment to decrease the hazard of oxynitride (NOx), Computational Fluid Dynamics (CFD) simulation could be used to research the main factor affecting the statistical characteristics of the oxynitride distribution in the urban street canyon with the photo-catalytic building walls. Additionally, the connection was investigated and focused on the swirling flow and oxynitride concentration to find out the root of the main factor affecting oxynitride distribution. The simulation results showed that there was one three-dimensional swirling flow in the whole canyon and the statistical concentration was straightforwardly related to the swirling or whirling flow structure (such as eddy). The characteristics had been confirmed that the whirling flow structure affected the complex oxynitride distribution in the street canyon with the photo-catalytic building walls. Furthermore, one formula was found which described the oxynitride concentration constrained by the street canyon. This study illustrated that different sections in the canyon had various patterns of the whirling flow structure (swirling flow) and oxynitride. In the symmetrical portion of the street canyon (in the middle of the street length), there is one concise equation to describe the NOx concentration affected by the turbulence intensity. Moreover, the equation was presented as CR = 1.094 + 0.11e-I, where I was the turbulence intensity and CR was the oxynitride relative concentration in the street canyon.

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Dinophysis, a mixotrophic dinoflagellate that is known to prey on the ciliate Mesodinium rubrum, and retain its chloroplasts, is responsible for diarrhetic shellfish poisoning (DSP) in humans and has been identified on all U.S. coasts. Monocultures of Dinophysis have been used to investigate the growth of Dinophysis species in response to variations in environmental conditions, however, little is known about the roles of system stability (turbulence) and mixotrophy in the growth and toxicity of Dinophysis species in the U.S.. To begin to address this gap in knowledge, culturing experiments were conducted with three species (four strains) of Dinophysis, that included predator-prey co-incubation (Dinophysis spp.+ M. rubrum) and prey-only (M. rubrum) flasks. Cultures were investigated for effects of low or high turbulence on Dinophysis spp. growth, feeding, and amounts of intra- and extracellular toxins: okadaic acid and derivatives (diarrhetic shellfish toxins, DSTs) and pectenotoxins (PTXs). Turbulence did not have a measurable effect on the rates of ingestion of M. rubrum prey by Dinophysis spp. for any of the four strains, however, effects on growth and particulate and dissolved toxins were observed. High turbulence (ε = 10-2 m2s-3) significantly slowed growth of both D. acuminata and D. ovum relative to still controls, but significantly stimulated growth of the D. caudata strain. Increasing turbulence also resulted in significantly higher intracellular toxin content in D. acuminata cultures (DSTs and PTXs), but significantly reduced intracellular toxin content (PTXs) in those of D. caudata. An increase in turbulence appeared to promote toxin leakage, as D. ovum had significantly more extracellular DSTs found in the medium under high turbulence when compared to the still control. Overall, significant responses to turbulence were observed, whereby the three strains from the "Dinophysis acuminata complex" displayed a stress response to turbulence, i.e., decreasing growth, increasing intracellular toxin content and/or increasing toxin leakage, while the D. caudata strain had an opposite response, appearing stimulated by, or more tolerant of, high turbulence.

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Suspended particulate matter (SPM) and biofilm are critical in removing contaminants in aquatic environments, but the environmental behavior and ecological toxicity of SPM-biofilm aggregates modulated by turbulence intensities are largely unknown. This study determined the removal pathways of microcystin-LR (MC-LR) by SPM and its biofilm under different turbulence intensities (2.25 × 10-3, 1.01 × 10-2, and 1.80 × 10-2 m2/s3). Then, we evaluated the toxicity of SPM-biofilm aggregates to Daphnia magna. The results revealed that SPM contributed to the adsorption of MC-LR, and the removal of MC-LR can be accelerated with biofilm formation on SPM, with 95.66 % to 97.45 % reduction in MC-LR concentration under the studied turbulence intensities. Higher turbulence intensity triggered more frequent contact of SPM and MC-LR, formed compact but smaller clusters of SPM-biofilm aggregates, and enhanced the abundance of mlrA and mlrB; thus benefiting the adsorption, biosorption, and biodegradation of MC-LR. Furthermore, the SPM-biofilm aggregates formed in turbulent water triggered oxidative stress to Daphnia magna, while a weak lethal toxic effect was identified under moderate turbulence intensity. The results indicate that the toxicity of SPM-biofilm aggregates fail to display a linear relationship with turbulence intensity. These findings offer new perspectives on understanding the environmental behavior and ecological outcomes of SPM and its biofilms in turbulent aquatic environments.

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