RESUMEN
OBJECTIVES: To make recommendations on the diagnosis and treatment of post-extubation laryngitis (PEL) in children with or without other comorbidities. METHODS: A three-iterative modified Delphi method was applied. Specialists were recruited representing pediatric otolaryngologists, pediatric and neonatal intensivists. Questions and statements approached topics encompassing definition, diagnosis, endoscopic airway evaluation, risk factors, comorbidities, management, and follow-up. A consensus was defined as a supermajority >70%. RESULTS: Stridor was considered the most frequent symptom and airway endoscopy was recommended for definitive diagnosis. Gastroesophageal reflux and previous history of intubation were considered risk factors. Specific length of intubation did not achieve a consensus as a risk factor. Systemic corticosteroids should be part of the medical treatment and dexamethasone was the drug of choice. No consensus was achieved regarding dosage of corticosteroids, although endoscopic findings help defining dosage and length of treatment. Non-invasive ventilation, laryngeal rest, and use of comfort sedation scales were recommended. Indications for microlaryngoscopy and bronchoscopy under anesthesia were symptoms progression or failure to improve after the first 72-h of medical treatment post-extubation, after two failed extubations, and/or suspicion of severe lesions on flexible fiberoptic laryngoscopy. CONCLUSIONS: Management of post-extubation laryngitis is challenging and can be facilitated by a multidisciplinary approach. Airway endoscopy is mandatory and impacts decision-making, although there is no consensus regarding dosage and length of treatment.
Asunto(s)
Extubación Traqueal , Laringitis , Laringoscopía , Humanos , Laringitis/etiología , Laringitis/diagnóstico , Laringitis/tratamiento farmacológico , Extubación Traqueal/efectos adversos , Niño , Técnica Delphi , Factores de RiesgoRESUMEN
Abstract Objectives To make recommendations on the diagnosis and treatment of post-extubation laryngitis (PEL) in children with or without other comorbidities. Methods A three-iterative modified Delphi method was applied. Specialists were recruited representing pediatric otolaryngologists, pediatric and neonatal intensivists. Questions and statements approached topics encompassing definition, diagnosis, endoscopic airway evaluation, risk factors, comorbidities, management, and follow-up. A consensus was defined as a supermajority >70%. Results Stridor was considered the most frequent symptom and airway endoscopy was recommended for definitive diagnosis. Gastroesophageal reflux and previous history of intubation were considered risk factors. Specific length of intubation did not achieve a consensus as a risk factor. Systemic corticosteroids should be part of the medical treatment and dexamethasone was the drug of choice. No consensus was achieved regarding dosage of corticosteroids, although endoscopic findings help defining dosage and length of treatment. Non-invasive ventilation, laryngeal rest, and use of comfort sedation scales were recommended. Indications for microlaryngoscopy and bronchoscopy under anesthesia were symptoms progression or failure to improve after the first 72-h of medical treatment post-extubation, after two failed extubations, and/or suspicion of severe lesions on flexible fiberoptic laryngoscopy. Conclusions Management of post-extubation laryngitis is challenging and can be facilitated by a multidisciplinary approach. Airway endoscopy is mandatory and impacts decision-making, although there is no consensus regarding dosage and length of treatment.
RESUMEN
El estridor corresponde a un signo altamente frecuente, sin embargo, es heterogéneo e inespecífico. Existen múltiples causas conocidas y manejadas por el otorrinolaringólogo. Los quistes subglóticos constituyen una entidad infrecuente de estridor en pediatría, siendo la población más frecuentemente afectada, niños con antecedentes de prematurez e intubación por períodos prolongados. Su manifestación clínica es variada, desde cuadros asintomáticos a pacientes con riesgo inminente de pérdida de la vía aérea. El diagnóstico suele ser tras largos períodos desde el antecedente de intubación. Su resolución suele ser quirúrgica, teniendo como principal complicación asociada la estenosis subglótica y las recurrencias. Se presenta el caso de una preescolar con un episodio de estridor y distrés respiratorio rápidamente progresivos, cuyo diagnóstico intraoperatorio resultó en quistes subglóticos submucosos bilaterales, que requirieron resolución quirúrgica.
Stridor corresponds to a highly frequent sign; however, it is heterogeneous and nonspecific. There are multiple causes that are widely known and managed by the otorhinolaryngolo-gist. Subglottic cysts are an infrequent entity of stridor in pediatric patients, where the most frequently affected population are childrens with history of prematurity and intubation for long periods. It's clinical manifestations are wide, from asymptomatic cases to patients with imminent risk of airway loss. Their manifestation its often after long periods after the moment of intubation. The management often involves surgery, and the main associated complication is subglottic stenosis and recurrences. We present the case of a preschool girl with an episode of rapidly progressive stridor and respiratory distress; whose intraoperative diagnosis was bilateral subglottic submucosal cysts that required surgical resolution.
Asunto(s)
Humanos , Femenino , Preescolar , Ruidos Respiratorios , Quistes/cirugía , Laringoscopía/métodos , Constricción PatológicaRESUMEN
Resumen La patología quirúrgica de la vía aérea pediátrica suele ser desafiante. Una visualización adecuada de las estructuras faríngeas y laríngeas es absolutamente necesaria para su correcto diagnóstico y tratamiento. Distintos instrumentos, como laringoscopios de intubación, laringoscopios de suspensión y broncoscopios flexibles o rígidos, permiten acceder a la vía aérea. Muchas veces se requiere el uso de una combinación de ellos para abordar con éxito estos problemas. En esta revisión, discutimos el uso de videolaringoscopios en el manejo de condiciones como estenosis subglótica, lesiones de vía aérea y cuerpos extraños. Aunque los anestesiólogos los utilizan frecuentemente para intubaciones difíciles debido a su cámara incorporada que facilita la visión de las estructuras laríngeas, existen escasos informes sobre su uso por cirujanos de vía aérea. Las ventajas sobre la laringoscopía convencional incluyen una mejor visualización, la capacidad de supervisar el procedimiento a través de una pantalla, una mejor ergonomía, que es portátil y que permite una rápida inserción de diferentes instrumentos. Consideramos que es particularmente útil en la dilatación de estenosis subglóticas. Presentamos un método fácil, barato y reproducible para realizarla.
Abstract Surgical pediatric airway diseases are often challenging, and an adequate visualization of pharyngeal and laryngeal structures is absolutely necessary for their correct diagnosis and treatment. Different instruments such as intubation laryngoscopes, suspension laryngoscopes and flexible and rigid bronchoscopes allow for access to the airway, and using a combination of them, is usually required to successfully address these problems. In this review, we discuss the use of videolaryngoscopes in the management of conditions such as subglottic stenosis, airway lesions and foreign bodies. Although commonly used by anesthesiologists for difficult intubations because of their built-in cameras that facilitate the view of laryngeal structures, there are scarce reports on its use by airway surgeons. Advantages over standard laryngoscopy include improved visualization and the ability to supervise the procedure through a screen. We also consider that it allows for improved ergonomics, portability and fast insertion of different instruments. We have found it to be particularly useful in subglottic stenosis dilation and an easy, cheap and reproducible method is also presented.
Asunto(s)
Humanos , Masculino , Femenino , Recién Nacido , Lactante , Preescolar , Niño , Adolescente , Pediatría , Intubación Intratraqueal/métodos , Laringoscopía/métodos , LaringoscopiosRESUMEN
Subglottic stenosis is a congenital and/or acquired pathology, which can be secondary to prolonged endotracheal intubation and tracheotomy. It is associated with hypoperfusion of the epithelium related to the cuff pressure of the endotracheal tube and/ or the tracheostomy cannula. Grade III-IV stenosis represents urgent and/or emergent airways, which must be managed by expert anesthesiologists who are extensively trained in techniques and algorithms. We report a case of a woman with multiple pre- dictors of difficult airway, obesity and mechanical ventilation due to tracheotomy; with subsequent grade III subglottic stenosis managed with tracheal dilation; who presented a new symptomatic episode, a non-dilatable stenosis of 2 mm and an indication for emergency tracheal reconstruction.
Las estenosis subglótica es una patología congénita y/o adquirida, que puede ser secundaria a intubación endotraqueal prolongada y necesidad de traqueostomía. Está asociada a una hipoperfusión del epitelio relacionado con la presión de cuff del tubo endotraqueal y/o de la cánula de traqueostomía. Las estenosis grado III-IV, representan vías aéreas urgentes y/o emergentes, que deben manejarse por anestesiólogos expertos y ampliamente entrenados en las técnicas y los algoritmos. Reportamos el caso de una mujer con múltiples predictores de vía aérea difícil, antecedente obesidad y de ventilación mecánica por traqueotomía; con posterior estenosis subglótica grado III manejada con dilatación traqueal; que presenta nuevo episodio sintomático, una estenosis no dilatable de 2 mm e indicación de reconstrucción traqueal de emergencia.
Asunto(s)
Humanos , Femenino , Adulto , Traqueostomía/efectos adversos , Laringoestenosis/etiología , Laringoestenosis/diagnóstico por imagen , Manejo de la Vía Aérea/métodos , Tomografía Computarizada por Rayos X , Laringoestenosis/cirugía , Dilatación , Glotis , Intubación Intratraqueal/efectos adversosRESUMEN
El estridor es un ruido respiratorio anormal generado por obstrucción o colapso de la vía aérea laringotraqueal, de manera aguda o de evolución crónica. Existen distintas causas tanto congénitas como adquiridas capaces de producir dificultad respiratoria, que puede llegar a ser grave y con potencial riesgo vital. El diagnóstico clínico del paciente con estridor persistente debe ser complementado con un estudio endoscópico de la vía aérea y en ocasiones con imágenes, para intentar determinar el o los sitios comprometidos y posibles malformaciones asociadas. La indicación de tratamiento debe ser individualizada, considerando el estado general del paciente, las etiologías responsables, el im pacto sobre la respiración y la deglución, el pronóstico y la capacidad técnica del equipo tratante, entre otras. Las alternativas pueden incluir observación, medidas no farmacológicas, medicamentos locales o sistémicos, procedimientos endoscópicos, cirugías abiertas, o bien la instalación de una traqueostomía de manera temporal o como manejo definitivo. El objetivo de esta revisión es entregar un adecuado conocimiento de la fisiopatología y la etiopatogenia del estridor pediátrico persistente, fundamental para el correcto manejo de estos pacientes complejos, que debiera realizarse idealmente en un contexto multidisciplinario.
Stridor is an abnormal respiratory sound caused by obstruction or collapse of the laryngotracheal airway, either acutely or chronically. There are different causes, both congenital and acquired, that can produce shortness of breath which may be severe and potentially life-threatening. The clini cal diagnosis must be complemented with an endoscopic airway assessment and sometimes with imaging, to try to determine the areas involved and possible associated malformations. Treatment should be individualized, considering the patient's overall condition, stridor etiology, its impact on breathing and swallowing, prognosis, and technical capacity of the managing team, among others. Alternatives may include observation, non-pharmacological measures, local or systemic medications, endoscopic and open surgeries, or a temporary or long-term tracheostomy. A thorough understan ding of the pathophysiology and etiopathogenesis of persistent pediatric stridor is essential for the correct management of these complex patients, ideally in a multidisciplinary manner.
Asunto(s)
Humanos , Niño , Ruidos Respiratorios/diagnóstico , Obstrucción de las Vías Aéreas/diagnóstico , Pronóstico , Traqueostomía/métodos , Ruidos Respiratorios/etiología , Obstrucción de las Vías Aéreas/terapia , Endoscopía/métodosRESUMEN
Abstract Introduction Since development of pediatric intensive care units, children have increasingly and appropriately been treated for complex surgical conditions such as laryngotracheal stenosis. Building coordinated airway teams to achieve acceptable results is still a challenge. Objective To describe patient demographics and surgical outcomes during the first 8 years of a pediatric airway reconstruction team. Methods Retrospective chart review of children submitted to open airway reconstruction in a tertiary university healthcare facility during the first eight years of an airway team formation. Results In the past 8 years 43 children underwent 52 open airway reconstructions. The median age at surgery was 4.1 years of age. Over half of the children (55.8%) had at least one comorbidity and over 80% presented Grade III and Grade IV subglottic stenosis. Other airway anomalies occurred in 34.8% of the cases. Surgeries performed were: partial and extended cricotracheal resections in 50% and laryngotracheoplasty with anterior and/or posterior grafts in 50%. Postoperative dilatation was needed in 34.15% of the patients. Total decannulation rate in this population during the 8-year period was 86% with 72% being decannulated after the first procedure. Average follow-up was 13.6 months. Initial grade of stenosis was predictive of success for the first surgery (p = 0.0085), 7 children were submitted to salvage surgeries. Children with comorbidities had 2.5 greater odds (95% CI 1.2-4.9, p = 0.0067) of unsuccessful surgery. Age at first surgery and presence of other airway anomalies were not significantly associated with success. Conclusions The overall success rate was 86%. Failures were associated with higher grades of stenosis and presence of comorbidities, but not with patient age or concomitant airway anomalies.
Resumo Introdução: Com o desenvolvimento de unidades de terapia intensiva pediátrica, o tratamento de crianças para situações cirúrgicas complexas, como a estenose laringotraqueal, tem sido cada vez mais adequado. Montar equipes coordenadas de via aérea para alcançar resultados aceitáveis ainda é um desafio. Objetivo: Descrever os dados demográficos e os resultados cirúrgicos dos pacientes durante os primeiros oito anos de uma equipe de reconstrução de via aérea pediátrica. Método: Revisão retrospectiva de prontuários de crianças submetidas à reconstrução aberta de via aérea em uma unidade de saúde universitária de nível terciário durante os primeiros oito anos de desenvolvimento de uma equipe de vias aéreas. Resultados: Nos últimos 8 anos, 43 crianças foram submetidas a 52 reconstruções abertas de vias aéreas. A mediana de idade na cirurgia foi de 4,1 anos. Mais da metade das crianças (55,8%) apresentavam pelo menos uma comorbidade e mais de 80% apresentavam estenose subglótica Grau III e Grau IV. Outras anomalias das vias aéreas ocorreram em 34,8% dos casos. As cirurgias feitas foram: ressecções cricotraqueais parciais e estendidas em 50% e laringotraqueoplastia com enxertos anterior e/ou posterior em 50%. A dilatação pós-operatória foi necessária em 34,15% dos pacientes. A taxa de decanulação total nesta população durante o período de 8 anos foi de 86%, com 72% dos pacientes decanulados após o primeiro procedimento. O seguimento médio foi de 13,6 meses. O grau inicial de estenose foi preditivo de sucesso para a primeira cirurgia (p = 0,0085), 7 crianças foram submetidas a cirurgias de resgate. Crianças com comorbidades apresentaram uma probabilidade 2,5 vezes maior (IC95% 1,2-4,9, p = 0,0067) de cirurgias sem sucesso. A idade na primeira cirurgia e a presença de outras anomalias das vias aéreas não foram significantemente associadas ao sucesso. Conclusões: A taxa global de sucesso foi de 86%. As falhas foram associadas a graus maiores de estenose e a presença de comorbidades, mas não com a idade do paciente ou anomalias concomitantes das vias aéreas.
Asunto(s)
Humanos , Masculino , Femenino , Preescolar , Procedimientos Quirúrgicos Otorrinolaringológicos/métodos , Estenosis Traqueal/cirugía , Laringoestenosis/cirugía , Procedimientos de Cirugía Plástica/métodos , Índice de Severidad de la Enfermedad , Brasil , Traqueostomía , Estudios Retrospectivos , Estudios de Seguimiento , Resultado del Tratamiento , LaringoplastiaRESUMEN
Abstract Objective To assess the accuracy of stridor in comparison to endoscopic examination for diagnosis of pediatric post-intubation subglottic stenosis. Method Children who required endotracheal intubation for >24 h were included in this prospective cohort study. Children were monitored daily and underwent flexible fiberoptic laryngoscopy after extubation. Those with moderate-to-severe abnormalities underwent another examination 7-10 days later. If lesions persisted or symptoms developed, laryngoscopy under general anesthesia was performed. Patients were assessed daily for stridor after extubation. Results A total of 187 children were included. The incidence of post-extubation stridor was 44.38%. Stridor had a sensitivity of 77.78% (95% confidence interval [95% CI]: 51.9-92.6) and specificity of 59.18% (95% CI: 51.3-66.6) in detecting subglottic stenosis. The positive predictive value was 16.87% (95% CI: 9.8-27.1), and the negative predictive value was 96.15% (95% CI: 89.9-98.8). Stridor persisting longer than 72 h or starting more than 72 h post-extubation had a sensitivity of 66.67% (95% CI: 41.2-85.6), specificity of 89.1% (95% CI: 83.1-93.2), positive predictive value of 40.0% (95% CI: 23.2-59.3), and negative predictive value of 96.07% (95% CI: 91.3-98.4). The area under the receiver operating characteristic (ROC) curve was 0.78 (95% CI: 0.65-0.91). Conclusions Absence of stridor was appropriate to rule out post-intubation subglottic stenosis. The specificity of this criterion improved when stridor persisted longer than 72 h or started more than 72 h post-extubation. Thus, endoscopy under general anesthesia can be used to confirm subglottic stenosis only in patients who develop or persist with stridor for more than 72 h following extubation.
Resumo Objetivo Analisar a precisão do estridor em comparação com o exame endoscópico no diagnóstico de estenose subglótica pós-intubação em crianças. Método Foram incluídas neste estudo de coorte prospectivo crianças que necessitaram de intubação endotraqueal por mais de 24 horas. Elas foram monitoradas diariamente e submetidas à nasofibrolaringoscopia flexível após a extubação. As crianças com anomalias moderadas foram submetidas a outro exame sete a 10 dias depois. Caso as lesões persistissem ou os sintomas evoluíssem, a laringoscopia era realizada com anestesia geral. Os pacientes foram avaliados diariamente quanto ao estridor após a extubação. Resultados Participaram 187 crianças. A incidência de estridor após a intubação foi de 44,38%. O estridor apresentou uma sensibilidade de 77,78% (intervalo de confiança de 95% [IC]: 51,9-92,6) e especificidade de 59,18% (IC: 51,3-66,6) na detecção de SGS. O valor preditivo positivo foi de 16,87% (IC: 9,8-27,1) e o valor preditivo negativo (VPN) foi de 96,15% (IC: 89,9-98,8). O estridor que persistiu por mais de 72 horas ou que começou 72 horas após a extubação teve uma sensibilidade de 66,67% (IC: 41,2-85,6), especificidade de 89,1% (IC: 83,1-93,2), valor preditivo positivo de 40,0% (IC: 23,2-59,3) e valor preditivo negativo de 96,07% (IC: 91,3-98,4). A área sob a curva de característica de operação do receptor (ROC) foi de 0,78 (IC: 0,65-0,91). Conclusões A ausência de estridor foi adequada para descartar a estenose subglótica pós-intubação. A especificidade desse critério melhorou quando o estridor perdurou por mais de 72 horas ou começou mais de 72 horas após a extubação. Assim, a endoscopia com anestesia geral pode ser utilizada para confirmar a estenose subglótica somente em pacientes que desenvolveram ou continuaram com estridor por mais de 72 horas após a extubação.
Asunto(s)
Humanos , Niño , Ruidos Respiratorios , Laringoestenosis , Estudios Prospectivos , Constricción Patológica , Intubación IntratraquealRESUMEN
INTRODUCTION: Since development of pediatric intensive care units, children have increasingly and appropriately been treated for complex surgical conditions such as laryngotracheal stenosis. Building coordinated airway teams to achieve acceptable results is still a challenge. OBJECTIVE: To describe patient demographics and surgical outcomes during the first 8years of a pediatric airway reconstruction team. METHODS: Retrospective chart review of children submitted to open airway reconstruction in a tertiary university healthcare facility during the first eight years of an airway team formation. RESULTS: In the past 8 years 43 children underwent 52 open airway reconstructions. The median age at surgery was 4.1 years of age. Over half of the children (55.8%) had at least one comorbidity and over 80% presented Grade III and Grade IV subglottic stenosis. Other airway anomalies occurred in 34.8% of the cases. Surgeries performed were: partial and extended cricotracheal resections in 50% and laryngotracheoplasty with anterior and/or posterior grafts in 50%. Postoperative dilatation was needed in 34.15% of the patients. Total decannulation rate in this population during the 8-year period was 86% with 72% being decannulated after the first procedure. Average follow-up was 13.6 months. Initial grade of stenosis was predictive of success for the first surgery (p=0.0085), 7 children were submitted to salvage surgeries. Children with comorbidities had 2.5 greater odds (95% CI 1.2-4.9, p=0.0067) of unsuccessful surgery. Age at first surgery and presence of other airway anomalies were not significantly associated with success. CONCLUSIONS: The overall success rate was 86%. Failures were associated with higher grades of stenosis and presence of comorbidities, but not with patient age or concomitant airway anomalies.
Asunto(s)
Laringoestenosis/cirugía , Procedimientos Quirúrgicos Otorrinolaringológicos/métodos , Procedimientos de Cirugía Plástica/métodos , Estenosis Traqueal/cirugía , Brasil , Preescolar , Femenino , Estudios de Seguimiento , Humanos , Laringoplastia , Masculino , Estudios Retrospectivos , Índice de Severidad de la Enfermedad , Traqueostomía , Resultado del TratamientoRESUMEN
OBJECTIVE: To assess the accuracy of stridor in comparison to endoscopic examination for diagnosis of pediatric post-intubation subglottic stenosis. METHOD: Children who required endotracheal intubation for >24h were included in this prospective cohort study. Children were monitored daily and underwent flexible fiberoptic laryngoscopy after extubation. Those with moderate-to-severe abnormalities underwent another examination 7-10 days later. If lesions persisted or symptoms developed, laryngoscopy under general anesthesia was performed. Patients were assessed daily for stridor after extubation. RESULTS: A total of 187 children were included. The incidence of post-extubation stridor was 44.38%. Stridor had a sensitivity of 77.78% (95% confidence interval [95% CI]: 51.9-92.6) and specificity of 59.18% (95% CI: 51.3-66.6) in detecting subglottic stenosis. The positive predictive value was 16.87% (95% CI: 9.8-27.1), and the negative predictive value was 96.15% (95% CI: 89.9-98.8). Stridor persisting longer than 72h or starting more than 72h post-extubation had a sensitivity of 66.67% (95% CI: 41.2-85.6), specificity of 89.1% (95% CI: 83.1-93.2), positive predictive value of 40.0% (95% CI: 23.2-59.3), and negative predictive value of 96.07% (95% CI: 91.3-98.4). The area under the receiver operating characteristic (ROC) curve was 0.78 (95% CI: 0.65-0.91). CONCLUSIONS: Absence of stridor was appropriate to rule out post-intubation subglottic stenosis. The specificity of this criterion improved when stridor persisted longer than 72h or started more than 72h post-extubation. Thus, endoscopy under general anesthesia can be used to confirm subglottic stenosis only in patients who develop or persist with stridor for more than 72h following extubation.
Asunto(s)
Laringoestenosis , Ruidos Respiratorios , Niño , Constricción Patológica , Humanos , Intubación Intratraqueal , Estudios ProspectivosRESUMEN
RESUMEN Introducción: La estenosis subglótica adquirida es una causa importante de estridor persistente después de una intubación endotraqueal. El diagnóstico y manejo tempranos pueden llevar a procedimientos menos invasivos con altas tasas de éxito. Si las lesiones agudas posintubación evolucionan hacia una estenosis, las dilataciones endoscópicas usando instrumentos romos o balones podrían lograr restablecer un lumen adecuado. Los balones son efectivos, pero caros y obstruyen la vía respiratoria al momento de la dilatación. Objetivo: Presentar nuestra experiencia con la dilatación progresiva de estenosis subglótica adquirida posintubación utilizando tubos endotraqueales. Material y método: Revisión retrospectiva de las dilataciones realizadas como tratamiento primario en estenosis subglótica pediátrica adquirida. Resultados: Se incluyeron 16 pacientes con estenosis de grados I a III, con una edad promedio de 2 años y 4 meses. El tiempo promedio de intubación fue de 6,6 días. El número de procedimientos promedio fue de 2, con un rango de 1 a 6. El éxito clínico se logró en todos los pacientes, con resolución de los síntomas respiratorios y evitando la traqueostomía. No hubo complicaciones ni mortalidad asociadas. Conclusión: En esta cohorte, la dilatación subglótica con tubos endotraqueales fue eficaz y segura. Estos están ampliamente disponibles y permiten ventilar al paciente mientras se realiza el procedimiento.
ABSTRACT Introduction: Acquired post-intubation subglottic stenosis is one of the most important complications causing persistent stridor after endotracheal intubation. Early diagnosis and management can lead to less-invasive procedures with high success rates. If the acute post-intubation injuries progress into a stenosis, endoscopic dilatations can be attempted to reestablish an adequate lumen. These can be performed using blunt instrument or balloons. Balloons are effective but expensive, and obstruct the airway while dilatating. Aim: Present our experience with progressive blunt dilatation of acquired post-intubation subglottic stenosis using endotracheal tubes. Material and method: Retrospective chart review of dilatations performed as the primary treatment in early acquired pediatric subglottic stenosis. Results: 16 patients with grades I to III stenosis were included. Average age was 2 years 4 months, and average intubation time was 6.6 days. The number of procedures ranged between 1 and 6, with a mean of 2. Clinical success was achieved in all patients, with resolution of respiratory symptoms and avoidance of tracheostomy. There were no complications or mortality. Conclusion: In this cohort, subglottic dilatation using endotracheal tubes was effective and safe. Endotracheal tubes are easily available and allow to ventilate the patient while performing the procedure.
Asunto(s)
Humanos , Masculino , Femenino , Recién Nacido , Lactante , Preescolar , Niño , Estenosis Traqueal/terapia , Laringoestenosis/terapia , Intubación Intratraqueal/métodos , Factores de Tiempo , Estenosis Traqueal/patología , Índice de Severidad de la Enfermedad , Laringoestenosis/patología , Estudios Retrospectivos , Resultado del Tratamiento , DilataciónRESUMEN
La estenosis subglótica es una enfermedad congènita o adquirida caracterizada por el estrechamiento de la vía aérea desde las cuerdas vocales hasta el borde inferior del cartílago cricoides. Es una de las principales causas de estridor y dificultad respiratoria en los niños. Más del 90 % de las estenosis laríngeas son adquiridas debido a la intubación endotraqueal prolongada. El manejo de la estenosis subglótica en pediatría es complejo y puede ser influenciado por distintos factores que pueden afectar el resultado final. El tratamiento puede involucrar procedimientos endoscópicos y/o cirugías abiertas. Se describe nuestra experiencia con 35 pacientes con estenosis subglótica adquirida tratados endoscópicamente con dilatación rígida y se identifican potenciales factores predictores del éxito de esta técnica.
Subglottic stenosis is a congenital or acquired disease characterized by the narrowing of the airways, from the vocal cords to the lower border of the cricoid cartilage. It is one of the main causes of stridor and respiratory distress in children. More than 90 % of laryngeal stenoses are acquired due to prolonged endotracheal intubation. The pediatric management of subglottic stenosis is complex and may be affected by different factors that have an impact on the final outcome. Treatment may involve endoscopic procedures and/or open surgeries. Here we describe our experience in 35 patients with acquired subglottic stenosis who underwent endoscopic treatment with rigid dilation and identify the potential predictors of success of this technique.
Asunto(s)
Humanos , Niño , Terapéutica , Constricción Patológica , Dilatación , EndoscopíaRESUMEN
Subglottic stenosis is a congenital or acquired disease characterized by the narrowing of the airways, from the vocal cords to the lower border of the cricoid cartilage. It is one of the main causes of stridor and respiratory distress in children. More than 90 % of laryngeal stenoses are acquired due to prolonged endotracheal intubation. The pediatric management of subglottic stenosis is complex and may be affected by different factors that have an impact on the final outcome. Treatment may involve endoscopic procedures and/or open surgeries. Here we describe our experience in 35 patients with acquired subglottic stenosis who underwent endoscopic treatment with rigid dilation and identify the potential predictors of success of this technique.
La estenosis subglótica es una enfermedad congènita o adquirida caracterizada por el estrechamiento de la vía aérea desde las cuerdas vocales hasta el borde inferior del cartílago cricoides. Es una de las principales causas de estridor y dificultad respiratoria en los niños. Más del 90 % de las estenosis laríngeas son adquiridas debido a la intubación endotraqueal prolongada. El manejo de la estenosis subglótica en pediatría es complejo y puede ser influenciado por distintos factores que pueden afectar el resultado final. El tratamiento puede involucrar procedimientos endoscópicos y/o cirugías abiertas. Se describe nuestra experiencia con 35 pacientes con estenosis subglótica adquirida tratados endoscópicamente con dilatación rígida y se identifican potenciales factores predictores del éxito de esta técnica.
Asunto(s)
Cartílago Cricoides/patología , Intubación Intratraqueal/efectos adversos , Laringoscopía/métodos , Laringoestenosis/terapia , Adolescente , Niño , Preescolar , Dilatación , Femenino , Humanos , Lactante , Laringoestenosis/etiología , Masculino , Estudios Retrospectivos , Resultado del TratamientoRESUMEN
INTRODUCTION: Small children with tracheostomy are at potential risk and have very specific needs. International literature describes the need for tracheostomy in 0.5% to 2% of children following intubation. Reports of children submitted to tracheostomy, their characteristics and needs are limited in developing countries and therefore there is a lack of health programs and government investment directed to medical and non-medical care of these patients. The aim of this study was to describe the characteristics of these children and identify problems related to or caused by the tracheostomy. METHODS: A retrospective cohort study was performed based on a common database applied in four high complexity healthcare facilities to children submitted to tracheostomy from January 2013 to December 2015. Data concerning children's demographics, indication for tracheostomy, early and late complications related to tracheostomy, airway diagnosis, comorbidities and decannulation rates are reported. Patients who did not present a complete database or had a follow-up of less than six months were excluded. RESULTS: A total of 160 children submitted to tracheostomy during the three-year period met the criteria and were enrolled in this study. Median age at tracheostomy was 6.9 months (ranging from 1 month to 16 years, interquartile range of 26 months). Post-intubation laryngitis was the most frequent indication (48.8%). Comorbidities were frequent: neurologic disorders were reported in 40%, pulmonary pathologies in 26.9% and 20% were premature infants. Syndromic children were 23.1% and the most frequent was Down's syndrome. The most common early complication was infection that occurred in 8.1%. Stomal granulomas were the most frequent late complication and occurred in 16.9%. Airway anomalies were frequently diagnosed in follow-up endoscopic evaluations. Subglottic stenosis was the most frequent airway diagnosis and occurred in 29.4% of the cases followed by laryngomalacia, suprastomal collapse and vocal cord paralysis. Decannulation was achieved in 22.5% of the cases in the three-year period. The main cause for persistent tracheostomy was the need for further treatment of airway pathology. Mortality rate was 18.1% during this period but only 1.3% were directly related to the tracheostomy, the other deaths were a consequence of other comorbidities. CONCLUSION: Tracheostomies were performed mostly in very small children and comorbidities were very common. Once a tracheostomy was performed in a child in most cases it was not removed before a year. The most common early complication was stoma infection followed by accidental decannulation. The most frequent late complication was granuloma and suprastomal collapse. Airway abnormalities were very frequent in this population and therefore need to be assessed before attempting decannulation.
Asunto(s)
Traqueostomía/estadística & datos numéricos , Adolescente , Obstrucción de las Vías Aéreas/epidemiología , Obstrucción de las Vías Aéreas/terapia , Brasil/epidemiología , Niño , Preescolar , Estudios de Cohortes , Comorbilidad , Anomalías Congénitas/epidemiología , Anomalías Congénitas/terapia , Trastornos de Deglución/epidemiología , Trastornos de Deglución/terapia , Femenino , Estudios de Seguimiento , Granuloma/epidemiología , Granuloma/etiología , Humanos , Lactante , Recién Nacido , Infecciones/epidemiología , Infecciones/etiología , Masculino , Respiración Artificial/estadística & datos numéricos , Estudios Retrospectivos , Traqueostomía/efectos adversosRESUMEN
PURPOSE: To assess the impact of balloon laryngoplasty on clinical and surgical outcomes in pediatric patients with acute subglottic stenosis. METHODS: Two case series were included and compared. The first group included patients treated initially either with tracheostomy (if severe symptoms) or with close follow-up (if mild symptoms). Those children underwent re-evaluation and specific treatment of their stenosis with laser incisions or open surgeries some weeks later. The other group included children treated initially with balloon laryngoplasty, reflecting a shift in surgical practice after 2009. Data as success of the procedure, mean hospital stay, mean pediatric intensive care unit (PICU) stay, post-procedure fever, need of antibiotics, procedure-related complications, and deaths were assessed and compared between both cohorts. RESULTS: The sample comprised 38 pediatric patients aged 0-5 years. Fifteen children were treated before 2009, of who 10 (66.7%) required tracheostomy soon after the diagnosis. Ultimately, 13 (86.6%) underwent laryngotracheal reconstruction. Twenty-three children were treated after 2009 and the success rate in these patients treated primarily with balloon laryngoplasty was 82.6%. Of these, only 3 (13%) required tracheostomy and 1 (4.3%) required further open laryngotracheal reconstruction. Patients treated by balloon laryngoplasty underwent fewer procedures under general anesthesia and had a lower burden of treatment-related morbidity, as denoted by shorter PICU stay, less antibiotic use, earlier postoperative resumption of oral feeding, and a lower incidence of postoperative complications and fever. CONCLUSION: When used for management of acute laryngeal stenosis, balloon laryngoplasty is associated with a high success rate, presenting lower morbidity than open surgery.
Asunto(s)
Laringoplastia/efectos adversos , Laringoestenosis/cirugía , Complicaciones Posoperatorias/epidemiología , Traqueostomía/efectos adversos , Enfermedad Aguda , Preescolar , Estudios de Cohortes , Constricción Patológica/cirugía , Femenino , Humanos , Lactante , Recién Nacido , Masculino , Resultado del TratamientoRESUMEN
Abstract Introduction: The management of laryngotracheal stenosis is complex and is influenced by multiple factors that can affect the ultimate outcome. Advanced lesions represent a special challenge to the treating surgeon to find the best remedying technique. Objective: To review the efficacy of our surgical reconstructive approach in managing advanced-stage laryngotracheal stenosis treated at a tertiary medical center. Methods: A retrospective review of all patients that underwent open laryngotracheal repair/reconstruction by the senior author between 2002 and 2014. Patients with mild/moderate stenosis (e.g. stage 1 or 2), or those who had an open reconstructive procedure prior to referral, were excluded. Patients who had only endoscopic treatment (e.g. laser, balloon dilatation) and were not subjected to an open reconstructive procedure at our institution, were not included in this study. Variables studied included patient demographics, clinical presentation, etiology of the laryngotracheal pathology, the location of stenosis, the stage of stenosis, the type of corrective or reconstructive procedure performed with the type of graft used (where applicable), the type and duration of stent used, the post-reconstruction complications, and the duration of follow-up. Outcome measures included decannulation rate, total number of reconstructive surgeries needed to achieve decannulation, and the number of post-operative endoscopies needed to reach a safe patent airway. Results: Twenty five patients were included, aged 0.5 months to 45 years (mean 13.5 years, median 15 years) with 16 males and 9 females. Seventeen patients (68%) were younger than 18 years. Most patients presented with stridor, failure of decannulation, or respiratory distress. Majority had acquired etiology for their stenosis with only 24% having a congenital pathology. Thirty-two reconstructive procedures were performed resulting in decannulating 24 patients (96%), with 15/17 (88%) pediatric patients and 5/8 (62.5%) adult patients requiring only a single reconstructive procedure. Cartilage grafts were mostly used in children (84% vs. 38%) and stents were mostly silicone made, followed by endotracheal tubes. The number of endoscopies required ranged from 1 to 7 (mean 3). More co-morbidities existed in young children, resulting in failure to decannulate one patient. Adult patients had more complex pathologies requiring multiple procedures to achieve decannulation, with grafting less efficacious than in younger patients. The pediatric patients had double the incidence of granulation tissue compared to adults. The decannulated patients remained asymptomatic at a mean follow-up of 50.5 months. Conclusion: The review of our approach to open airway repair/reconstruction showed its efficacy in advanced-stage laryngotracheal stenosis. Good knowledge of a variety of reconstructive techniques is important to achieve good results in a variety of age groups.
Resumo Introdução: A conduta da estenose laringotraqueal é complexa e é influenciada por vários fatores que podem afetar o resultado final. Lesões em estágio avançado representam um desafio especial para o cirurgião encontrar a melhor técnica de tratamento. Objetivo: Avaliar a eficácia de nossa abordagem de reconstrução cirúrgica no tratamento de estenose laringotraqueal em estágio avançado em um centro médico terciário. Método: Revisão retrospectiva de todos os pacientes submetidos a tratamento cirúrgico/reconstrução laringotraqueal aberta pelo autor principal, entre 2002 e 2014. Os pacientes com estenose leve (por exemplo, estágio 1 ou 2) ou aqueles submetidos a procedimento de reconstrução aberta antes da indicação foram excluídos. Pacientes que tinham sido submetidos somente a tratamento endoscópico (por exemplo, laser, dilatação por balão) e não haviam sido submetidos a procedimento de reconstrução aberta em nossa instituição não foram incluídos. As variáveis estudadas incluíram dados demográficos dos pacientes, apresentação clínica, etiologia da doença laringotraqueal, local da estenose, estágio da estenose, o tipo de procedimento corretivo ou reconstrutor feito com o tipo de enxerto usado (onde aplicável), tipo e duração do stent usado, complicações pós-reconstrução e duração do seguimento. Os resultados incluíram taxas de decanulação, número total de cirurgias reconstrutoras necessárias para possibilitar a decanulação e o número de endoscopias pós-operatórias necessárias para obter uma via aérea patente e segura. Resultados: Vinte e cinco pacientes foram incluídos, com 0,5 meses a 45 anos (média de 13,5, mediana de 15) com 16 homens e nove mulheres. Dezessete pacientes (68%) eram menores de 18 anos. A maioria dos pacientes apresentava estridor, falha de decanulação ou desconforto respiratório. A maioria das estenoses era adquirida, enquanto apenas 24% apresentavam causa congênita. Trinta e dois procedimentos reconstrutores foram feitos, resultaram em decanulação de 24 pacientes (96%), com 15/17 (88%) pacientes pediátricos e 5/8 pacientes (62,5%) adultos que necessitaram de apenas um único procedimento reconstrutor. Enxertos de cartilagem foram usados principalmente em crianças (84% vs. 38%) e a maioria dos stents era feita principalmente de silicone, seguido por tubo endotraqueal. O número de endoscopias necessárias variou de um a sete (média de três). Mais comorbidades foram observadas em crianças pequenas, o que resultou em falha de decanulação em um paciente. Pacientes adultos apresentavam doenças mais complexas que requereram vários procedimentos para decanulação, com enxertos menos eficazes do que em pacientes mais jovens. Os pacientes pediátricos apresentaram o dobro da incidência de tecido de granulação em comparação com os adultos. Os pacientes decanulados permaneceram assintomáticos em um seguimento médio de 50,5 meses. Conclusão: A revisão da nossa abordagem para tratamento cirúrgico/reconstrução aberta das vias aéreas demonstrou eficácia na estenose laringotraqueal em estágio avançado. O conhecimento de uma variedade de técnicas de reconstrução é importante para conseguir bons resultados em vários grupos etários.
Asunto(s)
Humanos , Masculino , Femenino , Lactante , Preescolar , Niño , Adolescente , Adulto , Persona de Mediana Edad , Adulto Joven , Estenosis Traqueal/cirugía , Laringoestenosis/cirugía , Procedimientos de Cirugía Plástica/métodos , Índice de Severidad de la Enfermedad , Estudios Retrospectivos , Resultado del TratamientoRESUMEN
Las lesiones laringotraqueales asociadas a intubación se deben principalmente a una técnica defectuosa y a daño por presión del tubo endotraqueal sobre la mucosa; además influyen características propias del paciente y de los cuidados de enfermería. Hasta el 40% de los pacientes pediátricos intubados pueden presentar alteraciones laríngeas inmediatas y hasta 30% tienen estridor o disnea posextubación. Si estos síntomas persisten por más de 3 días tendrían indicación de laringotraqueoscopía. Las lesiones más habituales son edema, úlceras y tejido de granulación. El edema puede producir obstrucción respiratoria aguda que puede manejarse con reintubación con tubos más pequeños y aplicación tópica de crema de corticoides con antibióticos. Las úlceras y granulaciones pueden evolucionar hacia secuelas cicatriciales que comprometen la fisiología laringotraqueal; las granulaciones exofíticas deben retirarse endoscópicamente. Aunque la incidencia de estenosis subglótica posintubación ha disminuido en las últimas décadas, situándose entre 2,7%y 4,2%, algunos estudios sugieren un subdiagnóstico debido a lesiones poco sintomáticas al alta. En el período cicatricial activo, estas estenosis pueden dilatarse para evitar llegar a una cirugía abierta. El manejo otorrinolaringológico de estos pacientes en etapas tempranas es fundamental para evitar secuelas cicatriciales irreversibles que requieren de cirugías complejas, con riesgo vital por obstrucción de la vía aérea.
Intubation-associated laryngotracheal injuries are mainly caused by a defective technique and endotracheal tube pressure-induced mucosal damage; patient factors and nursing care are also important. Up to 40% of intubated pediatric patients may show immediate laryngeal alterations and up to 30% have post-extubation stridor or dyspnea. If these symptoms last for over 3 days, laryngotracheoscopy is indicated. Edema, ulcers and granulation tissue are the most usual lesions. Edema can lead to acute airway obstruction, and is managed by reintubation with a smaller tube and topical application of a corticosteroid and antibiotic cream. Ulcers and granulations can lead to scarring that compromise laryngotracheal physiology; exophytic granulations must be removed endoscopically. Although the incidence of post-intubation subglottic stenosis has diminished over the last decades to about2,7% to 4,2%, some studies suggest that there is a subdiagnosis because of oligosymptomatic lesions at the time of discharge. On the active scarring period, dilatation of the stenosis can be used to avoid open surgery. Early otorhinolaryngologic management of these patients is fundamental for avoiding irreversible cicatricial sequels that require complex surgeries, with life risk due to airway obstruction.
Asunto(s)
Humanos , Niño , Intubación Intratraqueal/efectos adversos , Laringoestenosis/diagnóstico , Laringoestenosis/prevención & control , Enfermedad Aguda , Glotis , Laringoscopía/métodos , Laringoestenosis/etnologíaRESUMEN
INTRODUCTION: The management of laryngotracheal stenosis is complex and is influenced by multiple factors that can affect the ultimate outcome. Advanced lesions represent a special challenge to the treating surgeon to find the best remedying technique. OBJECTIVE: To review the efficacy of our surgical reconstructive approach in managing advanced-stage laryngotracheal stenosis treated at a tertiary medical center. METHODS: A retrospective review of all patients that underwent open laryngotracheal repair/reconstruction by the senior author between 2002 and 2014. Patients with mild/moderate stenosis (e.g. stage 1 or 2), or those who had an open reconstructive procedure prior to referral, were excluded. Patients who had only endoscopic treatment (e.g. laser, balloon dilatation) and were not subjected to an open reconstructive procedure at our institution, were not included in this study. Variables studied included patient demographics, clinical presentation, etiology of the laryngotracheal pathology, the location of stenosis, the stage of stenosis, the type of corrective or reconstructive procedure performed with the type of graft used (where applicable), the type and duration of stent used, the post-reconstruction complications, and the duration of follow-up. Outcome measures included decannulation rate, total number of reconstructive surgeries needed to achieve decannulation, and the number of post-operative endoscopies needed to reach a safe patent airway. RESULTS: Twenty five patients were included, aged 0.5 months to 45 years (mean 13.5 years, median 15 years) with 16 males and 9 females. Seventeen patients (68%) were younger than 18 years. Most patients presented with stridor, failure of decannulation, or respiratory distress. Majority had acquired etiology for their stenosis with only 24% having a congenital pathology. Thirty-two reconstructive procedures were performed resulting in decannulating 24 patients (96%), with 15/17 (88%) pediatric patients and 5/8 (62.5%) adult patients requiring only a single reconstructive procedure. Cartilage grafts were mostly used in children (84% vs. 38%) and stents were mostly silicone made, followed by endotracheal tubes. The number of endoscopies required ranged from 1 to 7 (mean 3). More co-morbidities existed in young children, resulting in failure to decannulate one patient. Adult patients had more complex pathologies requiring multiple procedures to achieve decannulation, with grafting less efficacious than in younger patients. The pediatric patients had double the incidence of granulation tissue compared to adults. The decannulated patients remained asymptomatic at a mean follow-up of 50.5 months. CONCLUSION: The review of our approach to open airway repair/reconstruction showed its efficacy in advanced-stage laryngotracheal stenosis. Good knowledge of a variety of reconstructive techniques is important to achieve good results in a variety of age groups.
Asunto(s)
Laringoestenosis/cirugía , Procedimientos de Cirugía Plástica/métodos , Estenosis Traqueal/cirugía , Adolescente , Adulto , Niño , Preescolar , Femenino , Humanos , Lactante , Masculino , Persona de Mediana Edad , Estudios Retrospectivos , Índice de Severidad de la Enfermedad , Resultado del Tratamiento , Adulto JovenRESUMEN
BACKGROUND AND OBJECTIVE: Severe laryngotracheal stenosis in childhood poses a complex surgical challenge for specialists in airway surgery. Patients with severe subglottic stenosis with vocal cord involvement are particularly difficult to manage successfully. The goal of this work was to review our experience with extended CTR in a cohort of young children with severe SGS and determine which clinical parameters would be associated with surgical success. METHODS: Retrospective analysis of the outcome of consecutive patients with severe glottic-subglottic stenosis submitted to an extended double-stage CTR between 2004 and 2014 at a large tertiary referral center. RESULTS: Twenty-five patients met inclusion criteria, with a mean age of 58.7 months at the time of repair. Overall decannulation rate was 80% (20/25), with a median time to deannulation of 120 days. Seven patients developed post-operative sequelae (4 arytenoid dislocations, 2 re-stenosis, and 1 anterior commissure adhesion). Patients with these sequelae had lower overall specific decannulation (42.8%) compared to those without any sequelae (94.4%) (Chi-square, p = 0.0123) with a longer time to decannulate (logrank, p = 0.0004). Notably, patients presenting with these sequelae on average had undergone a longer duration of post-operative stenting (27.14 days) compared to those presenting without any sequelae (14.8 days) (p = 0.0282). CONCLUSIONS: Extended CTR is an effective method for resolving a majority of severe glottic-subglottic stenosis cases in children. Duration of post-operative stenting may adversely impact overall outcome in these patients.
Asunto(s)
Cartílago Cricoides/cirugía , Laringoestenosis/cirugía , Niño , Preescolar , Femenino , Glotis/cirugía , Humanos , Lactante , Masculino , Estudios Retrospectivos , Stents , Centros de Atención Terciaria , Factores de Tiempo , Resultado del Tratamiento , Pliegues Vocales/cirugíaRESUMEN
Introducción: La laringomalacia es la causa más frecuente de estridor en lactantes, representando el 60%-70% de los defectos congénitos laríngeos. Entre 10%-20% de estos pacientes puede requerir tratamiento quirúrgico. Objetivo: Revisar las manifestaciones clínicas y los resultados de las supragloto-plastías en laringomalacia severa en nuestro hospital durante 2015. Material y método: Estudio descriptivo retrospectivo mediante revisión de fichas clínicas de pacientes sometidos a supraglotoplastía en el Hospital Guillermo Grant Benavente de Concepción en 2015. Resultados: Se intervinieron 11 pacientes siendo el promedio de edad, al momento de la cirugía, de 7,3 meses. Todos los pacientes tenían dificultad para alimentarse y el 45% además cianosis con la alimentación y el llanto, desaturaciones y pausas respiratorias. Cuatro casos portaban anomalías congénitas asociadas y el 73% presentó lesiones concomitantes de vía aérea, principalmente estenosis subglótica (64%). Los tipos morfológicos observados de laringomalacia fueron los tipos I y II con 27% y 73%, respectivamente. La tasa de éxito quirúrgico fue de 91%, sin necesidad de revisiones y no se presentaron complicaciones relacionadas al procedimiento. Conclusiones: La supraglotoplastía con láser es una técnica segura y efectiva para el tratamiento de laringomalacia severa. Los pacientes con laringomalacia severa debiesen ser sometidos a una revisión completa de vía aérea para evaluar otras comorbilidades.
Introduction: Laryngomalacia is the most common cause of stridor in infants, accounting for 60%-70% of laryngeal congenital defects. Between 10% to 20% of these patients may require surgical treatment. Aim: To review the clinical manifestations and outcomes of supraglottoplasties in severe laryngomalacia at our hospital during 2015. Material and method: Retrospective medical record review of children that underwent CO2 laser supraglottoplasty at Hospital Guillermo Grant Benavente in Concepcion during 2015. Results: Eleven patients were included in this study, the average age at the time of surgery was 7.3 months. All the patients had stridor associated with feeding difficulty and 45% of them also had cyanosis with feeding and crying, desaturations and respiratory pauses. Four cases had associated congenital anomalies and 73% of the patients had airway comorbidity, mostly subglottic stenosis (64%). All of ourpatients had types I and II laryngomalacia with 27% and 73%, respectively. The success rate of surgery was 91%, no patients required a revision supraglottoplasty and there were no complications related to the procedure. Conclusions: CO2 laser supraglottoplasty proved to be a safe and effective treatment for severe laryngomalacia. Patients with severe laryngomalacia should undergo a full airway revision under general anesthesia to assess airway comorbidity.