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The prevalence of divorce in both parental and grandparental generations has led to a rise in the number of children who now have families that include both biological and step-grandparents. Despite the thorough examination of biological grandparents' contributions in the recent literature, there remains a scarcity of studies focusing on the investment of step-grandparents. Using population-based data from a sample of 2494 parents in Germany, we assessed grandparental investment through financial support and assistance with childcare of grandparents (N = 4238) and step-grandparents (N = 486). The study revealed that step-grandparents provided lower levels of investment in their grandchildren compared with biological grandparents. Furthermore, the study identified that a longer duration of co-residence between step-grandparents and parents earlier in life did not correspond to an increase or decrease in step-grandparental investment. However, investment by separated biological grandparents increased with the increasing length of co-residence with parents. In line with the scarce literature on step-grandparental investment, these findings indicate that mating effort may be the most important motivation for step-grandparental investment.

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Changes in family structure (e.g., parental separation or stepfamily formation) are associated with a deterioration in children's well-being. Most researchers have focused on the impact of such changes on children's educational and psychosocial outcomes, whereas the effects on children's biological processes have been studied less often. We analyze the effects of changes in family structure on children's stress levels using data from the German Health Interview and Examination Survey for Children and Adolescents study (2003-2006 and 2014-2017). Our outcome variable is the biomarker c-reactive protein (CRP), which correlates with psychological distress and is collected from blood samples. Calculating first-difference estimators, we analyze whether children have higher CRP levels after changing to (1) single-parent families (n = 117) or (2) stepfamilies (n = 80). Our findings suggest that changing to a single-parent family significantly increases children's stress, whereas changing to a stepfamily does not. These observations are important because increased stress in childhood can negatively affect well-being later in life.

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Clinical and empirical literatures have highlighted the value of attending to distinct dyads within stepfamilies to ensure the needs of various relationships are being met. From a family systems perspective, the growth and maintenance of positive dynamics within one dyadic relationship can yield gains in other relationships and shape the larger stepfamily environment. Research seeking to link information about dyads and larger stepfamily systems is often marked by single-informant data or measures that represent individual-level constructs. Methods intended to leverage multi-informant data as indicators of dyad- or family-level constructs (i.e., common fate modeling; CFM) offer valuable opportunities to expand our understanding of stepfamily experiences. Using a sample of 291 stepparent-parent dyads, our study uses multi-informant data and CFM to assess three dyad-level constructs (i.e., marital quality, marital confidence, and stepparent-child relationship quality) as correlates of three stepfamily-level constructs (i.e., cohesion, expressiveness, and harmony). Our findings illustrate meaningful linkages among dyadic relationships and broader stepfamily-level dynamics, specifically emphasizing the role of stepparent-child relationship quality and marital confidence in shaping stepfamily cohesion, expressiveness, and harmony. The results also signal the potential for substantive findings to vary with respect to the selected unit of analysis.

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We examine older partnered parents' time spent with adult children in biological and step families, treating time together as an indication of relationship strength. Using a unique national sample of U.S. time diaries from the Panel Study of Income Dynamics, we investigate time with all adult children combined and with each adult child. We find that time together depends on family structure and parent-adult child dyadic relationship type embedded in family structure. In analyses of all adult children combined, an older parent is more likely to spend time with adult children in biological families than in stepfamilies only when there is no shared biological child in the stepfamily. In dyadic analyses, a parent's tie with an adult child who is a biological child of both partners is stronger in stepfamilies than in biological families. Moreover, among stepfamilies, ties are not uniformly stronger with biological children relative to stepchildren; differences emerge only in more complex families when each partner has biological children from previous relationships. Our findings challenge the view that ties with older parents are always weaker with stepchildren in stepfamilies and point to the importance of considering parent-child relationships in the broader family context.

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An inclusive conceptualization of "family" can enable family-serving systems and professionals to leverage high-quality family relationships, wherever they are found, to support the health and well-being of individuals. Stepfamilies are an especially common family form with distinct needs and experiences, and stepparent-child relationships can take on a variety of functions with implications for family stability and individual well-being. The purpose of this systematic review and meta-analysis was to synthesize empirical associations between stepparent-child relationships and child outcomes. General findings from 56 studies highlighted significant associations between several dimensions of stepparent-child relationships and children's psychological, behavioral, social, academic, and physical well-being. Meta-analytic findings from 68 effect-size estimates further substantiated significant and positive associations between stepparent-child relationship quality and child psychological well-being (mean r = .25) and academic well-being (mean r = .23), as well as significant and negative associations between stepparent-child relationship quality and child psychological problems (mean r = -.23) and behavioral problems (mean r = -.19).

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This exploratory and qualitative research aimed to understand how legal professionals and professionals working in the Public Ministry (psychologists, social workers, prosecutors, and judges) understand and notice adoption by gay and lesbian couples. Forty-one professionals were interviewed (six judges, three prosecutors, fourteen psychologists, and eighteen social workers), who work in ten judiciary districts of three Brazilian states, with the collected data being submitted to content analysis and interpreted according to the bioecological theory and local literature. For the professionals, adoption in Brazil is legally possible, but there are restrictions based on the propagation of moral values on the social imaginary. In general, they would more specifically assess, in these candidates, the possible repercussions of sexual orientation and adoption in their lives and in the lives of their families, worrying about the emotional safety of their future children. The importance of preparing candidates, children/adolescents, and professionals was emphasized, and these must act as agents of change to a cultural re-signification of preconceived conceptions.

Este estudo exploratório e qualitativo objetivou compreender como profissionais que atuam no Judiciário e no Ministério Público (psicólogos, assistentes sociais, promotores e juízes) entendem e percebem a adoção por casais de gays e lésbicas. Foram entrevistados 41 profissionais (seis juízes, três promotores, 14 psicólogas e 18 assistentes sociais) atuantes em dez Comarcas de três estados brasileiros, sendo os dados submetidos à análise de conteúdo e interpretados pela teoria bioecológica e por literatura da área. Para os profissionais, trata-se de uma adoção juridicamente possível no Brasil, embora reconheçam que existem ressalvas pautadas na veiculação de valores morais no imaginário social. Em geral, avaliam-se mais especificamente nesses pretendentes as possíveis repercussões da orientação sexual e da adoção em suas vidas e de suas famílias, preocupando-se com a segurança emocional do(s) futuro(s) filho(s). Enfatizou-se a importância da preparação de pretendentes, crianças/adolescentes e profissionais, devendo esses operarem como agentes de mudança para uma ressignificação cultural de concepções preconceituosas.

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Stepparent-child relationships are a core pillar of stepfamily functioning and well-being. Stepparents can take on a variety of roles in the lives of their stepchildren, ranging from de facto parents to distant acquaintances. There remain important opportunities to explore specific interactional patterns between youth and stepparents, particularly resident stepmothers. Drawing from a family systems perspective, the purpose of the current study is to explore patterns of youth-stepmother interaction across recreational, personal, academic, and disciplinary domains of family life. Latent class analysis is conducted using a representative sample of 295 youth (mean age: 15.82 years, SD = 1.63; 41% female; 65% non-Hispanic White) residing in father-stepmother households who have living nonresident mothers at Wave I of the National Longitudinal Study of Adolescent to Adult Health. The optimal latent class solution yielded four interactional patterns, labeled versatile and involved (21%), inactive (12%), casually connected (17%), and academically oriented (50%). The latent classes are also contrasted with respect to stepfamily relationship quality, youth well-being, and socio-demographic characteristics. Foremost, the results illustrate significant variability in the patterns of interactions between youth and their resident stepmothers, which could be attributed to youths' varying autonomy-seeking efforts and other complex family dynamics. Consistent with a family systems perspective, associations between youth-stepmother interactional patterns and family and youth outcomes highlight the importance of the relationship between youth and their resident stepmothers. Importantly, not all interactional patterns differed significantly across outcomes, suggesting that no one pattern is universally optimal in father-stepmother families with adolescent children.

Las relaciones entre padrastros, madrastras e hijastros son un pilar fundamental del funcionamiento y el bienestar de las familias ensambladas. Los padrastros y las madrastras pueden asumir diversos roles en las vidas de sus hijastros, desde padres de hecho a personas con una relación distante. Quedan importantes oportunidades de analizar patrones interactivos específicos entre los jóvenes y los padrastros y madrastras, particularmente las madrastras residentes. Basándonos en una perspectiva de sistemas familiares, el propósito del presente estudio es analizar patrones de interacción entre los jóvenes y las madrastras en ámbitos recreativos, personales, académicos y disciplinarios de la vida familiar. Se realiza un análisis de clases latentes utilizando una muestra representativa de 295 jóvenes (edad promedio: 15.82 años, desviación típica = 1.63; 41 % de sexo femenino; 65 % raza blanca no hispana) que viven en hogares conformados por el padre y la madrastra, y que tienen madres vivas no residentes en la fase I del "Estudio Longitudinal Nacional de Salud de Adolescentes a Adultos" (National Longitudinal Study of Adolescent to Adult Health). La solución óptima de clase latente arrojó cuatro patrones interactivos llamados adaptables e interesados (21 %), inactivos (12 %), conectados ocasionalmente (17 %), y orientados académicamente (50 %). Las clases latentes también se contrastan con respecto a la calidad de la relación de la familia ensamblada, el bienestar de los jóvenes y las características sociodemográficas. Principalmente, los resultados ilustran la variabilidad significativa en los patrones de interacciones entre los jóvenes y sus madrastras residentes, que podrían atribuirse a los distintos esfuerzos de búsqueda de autonomía por parte de los jóvenes y a otras dinámicas familiares complejas. De acuerdo con una perspectiva de sistemas familiares, las asociaciones entre los patrones interactivos entre los jóvenes y las madrastras y los resultados de las familias y los jóvenes destacan la importancia de la relación entre los jóvenes y sus madrastras residentes. Cabe señalar que no todos los patrones interactivos difirieron considerablemente entre los resultados, lo cual sugiere que ningún patrón es óptimo a nivel universal en las familias de padres y madrastras con hijos adolescentes.

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This article studies the relationship between having a common child in stepfamilies and partners' relationship satisfaction. Previous works have primarily looked at children's adjustment in stepfamilies and have cautioned against seeing a common offspring as a way to "cement" the partnership because the addition of a shared child does not benefit the child from an earlier union. We used seven waves of the German "Panel Analysis of Intimate Relationships and Family Dynamics" to examine the relationship satisfaction of partners in a stepfamily and its association with the potential birth of a common child. After controlling for initial relationship satisfaction, we see that having a common child is linked to higher satisfaction over time. Interestingly, for those whose common child is between 1 and 3 years old, we saw temporarily lower relationship satisfaction, which was less pronounced for the partner who was a stepparent in the context of the union.

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Increases in life expectancy, high rates of movement into and out of couple relationships, and increasing exposure to stepfamilies raise new questions about who is in a family, the distinction between who lives together and who is a family member, and the extent to which family members are expected to meet the long-term obligations that define kinship. These questions are important because families have traditionally served as a vital private safety net for family members. Demographic changes increase family members' uncertainty about their relationships. Family ties are less stable and more uncertain among the economically disadvantaged, and uncertainty may exacerbate these disadvantages by weakening individuals' ability to rely on family members' support to alleviate hardship. I argue that demographers should focus on individuals' family relationships to gain insight into living arrangements and family dynamics. I also outline the development of family concepts and improvements in study design to identify principles that demographers should incorporate in new research to shed light on families' support for their members.

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Mothers with children from prior relationships or with stepchildren may perceive greater challenges in parenting than their counterparts in less complex families. We use the Families and Relationships Study (FRS) to analyze parental stress and perceptions of co-parenting among cohabiting and married mothers with resident minor children (N = 679). Compared to mothers with only shared children, parental stress and perceptions of co-parenting generally do not differ when mothers have children from prior unions. However, mothers with resident stepchildren evaluate the distribution of childcare as less fair, consider their partners as less reliable co-parents, and rate their partner more poorly as a co-parent relative to those with no stepchildren. These findings suggest that creating a stepfamily through one's own children may not present additional parenting challenges or stressors whereas having stepchildren introduced through a partner may be linked to a different, and less positive, parenting experience.

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Stepfamilies are an increasingly common family form, many of which are headed by a resident mother and stepfather. Stepfather-child relationships exert notable influence on stepfamily stability and individual well-being. Although various stepfather roles have been observed, more research is warranted by which stepfather-child interactions are explored holistically and across a variety of life domains (e.g., recreational, personal, academic, and disciplinary). Thus, the primary purpose of the current study is to explore varying interactional patterns between youth and their stepfathers. A latent class analysis is conducted using a representative sample of 1,183 youth (53% female; mean age = 15.64 years, SD = 1.70 years; 62% non-Hispanic White) residing in mother-stepfather families from Wave I of the National Longitudinal Study of Adolescent to Adult Health. Latent-class enumeration processes support a four-class solution, with latent classes representing inactive, academically oriented, casually connected, and versatile and involved patterns of youth-stepparent interaction. Notable differences and similarities are evident across patterns with respect to family relationship quality, youth well-being, and socio-demographic characteristics. Differences are most stark between the inactive and versatile and involved patterns. Ultimately, the results showcase notable variation in youth-stepparent interactional patterns, and one size does not necessarily fit all stepfamilies. Family practitioners should be mindful of variation in youth-stepparent interactional patterns and assist stepfamilies in seeking out stepparent-child dynamics that are most compatible with the needs and dynamics of the larger family system.

Las familias ensambladas son cada vez más una forma común de familia, muchas de las cuales están encabezadas por una madre y un padrastro residentes. Las relaciones entre el padrastro y los niños ejercen una influencia notable en la estabilidad de la familia ensamblada y en el bienestar individual. Aunque se han observado distintos roles de los padrastros, se necesitan más investigaciones en las que las interacciones entre el padrastro y los niños se analicen íntegramente y en diferentes ámbitos de la vida (p. ej.: recreativo, personal, académico y disciplinario). Por lo tanto, el objetivo principal del presente estudio es analizar patrones interactivos variados entre los jóvenes y sus padrastros. Se realiza un análisis de clases latentes utilizando una muestra representativa de 1183 jóvenes (el 53 % de sexo femenino; edad promedio = 15.64 años, DT = 1.70 años; el 62 % blancos no hispanos) que viven en familias compuestas por una madre y un padrastro de la serie I del "Estudio Longitudinal Nacional de la Salud Adolescente a Adulta" (National Longitudinal Study of Adolescent to Adult Health). Los procesos de enumeración de las clases latentes respaldan una solución de cuatro clases, donde las clases latentes representan patrones de interacción inactivos, orientados a lo académico, conectados ocasionalmente y versátiles e interesados entre los jóvenes y los padrastros. Se observan diferencias y similitudes notables entre los patrones con respecto a la calidad de la relación familiar, al bienestar de los jóvenes y a las características sociodemográficas. Las diferencias son más marcadas entre los patrones inactivos y versátiles e interesados. Finalmente, los resultados exhiben una variación notable en los patrones interactivos entre los jóvenes y los padrastros, por lo tanto, no necesariamente existe un criterio único aplicable a todas las familias esambladas. Los médicos familiares deben estar al tanto de la variación en los patrones interactivos entre los jóvenes y los padrastros y ayudar a las familias ensambladas a buscar una dinámica entre los jóvenes y los padrastros que sea más compatible con las necesidades y la dinámica del sistema familiar más amplio.

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Cohabiting unions increasingly involve children, either born during the union and/or from prior relationships (i.e., stepchildren). Drawing from arguments about the institutionalization of cohabitation and stepfamilies as well as the family systems perspective, this paper examines dissolution and marriage risks among women's cohabiting unions by stepfamily status, configuration (which partner has children) and shared intended and unintended fertility using the 2006-2013 National Survey of Family Growth. A minority (32%) of 1st cohabitations, but the majority of 2nd (65%) and 3rd (75%) cohabitations, are stepfamilies. Stepfamily cohabitations are less likely to transition to marriage compared to non-stepfamily unions, especially among complex stepfamilies (both partners have children), but neither stepfamily status nor configuration affect dissolution. Shared intended and unintended births are associated with dissolution and marriage risks but largely only for non-stepfamily cohabitations, suggesting that shared childbearing is only indicative of the institutionalization for cohabitations that are not stepfamilies.

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The stepfamily literature is replete with between-group analyses by which youth residing in stepfamilies are compared to youth in other family structures across indicators of adjustment and well-being. Few longitudinal studies examine variation in stepfamily functioning to identify factors that promote the positive adjustment of stepchildren over time. Using a longitudinal sample of 191 stepchildren (56% female, mean age = 11.3 years), the current study examines the association between the relationship quality of three central stepfamily dyads (stepparent-child, parent-child, and stepcouple) and children's internalizing and externalizing problems concurrently and over time. Results from path analyses indicate that higher levels of parent-child affective quality are associated with lower levels of children's concurrent internalizing and externalizing problems at Wave 1. Higher levels of stepparent-child affective quality are associated with decreases in children's internalizing and externalizing problems at Wave 2 (6 months beyond baseline), even after controlling for children's internalizing and externalizing problems at Wave 1 and other covariates. The stepcouple relationship was not directly linked to youth outcomes. Our findings provide implications for future research and practice.

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BACKGROUND: Emerging adults aged 18 to 25 are most at-risk for non-medical use of prescription drugs (NMUPD). While the literature dedicated to emerging-adult NMUPD has explored risk and protective factors at an individual level, much less is known regarding how interpersonal and familial factors relate to NMUPD. Because interpersonal bonds can have a significant impact on behavior, familial factors may be important predictors of NMUPD among emerging adults. OBJECTIVES: Inasmuch as growing up in a stepfamily is increasingly common for children, this study aimed to determine whether perceived stepfamily quality within three stepfamily subsystems - child-biological parent, child-stepparent, and child-stepsibling - decreased the likelihood of NMUPD in emerging adulthood. METHODS: Data came from the Stepfamily Experiences Project (STEP), a retrospective survey examining emerging adults' perceptions of their stepfamily life in 2013. A national quota sampling strategy was used, and the final sample consisted of 902 emerging adults (54.1% female). A structural equation model was constructed, with regression paths from each latent construct predicting the ordinal dependent variable, NMUPD. RESULTS: Increased retrospective biological parent relationship quality in childhood significantly decreased the likelihood of intensifying NMUPD in emerging adulthood (e.g. moving from the "None" category to the "Once a month or less" category). However, stepparent and stepsibling relationship quality did not influence NMUPD. CONCLUSION: Findings underscore the importance of the preservation of the child-biological parent relationship within a stepfamily context, and encourage further research on the impact familial systems and subsystems may have on NMUPD.

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This article draws on four decades of research and clinical practice to delineate guidelines for evidence-informed, clinically sound work with stepfamilies for couple, family, individual adult, and child therapists. Few clinicians receive adequate training in working with the intense and often complex dynamics created by stepfamily structure and history. This is despite the fact that stepfamilies are a fundamentally different family form that occurs world-wide. As a result many clinicians rely on their training in first-time family models. This is not only often unhelpful, but all too often inadvertently destructive. The article integrates a large body of increasingly sophisticated research about stepfamilies with the author's four decades of clinical practice with stepfamily relationships. It describes the ways in which stepfamilies are different from first-time families. It delineates the dynamics of five major challenges stepfamily structure creates: (1) Insider/outsider positions are intense and they are fixed. (2) Children struggle with losses, loyalty binds, and change. (3) Issues of parenting, stepparenting, and discipline often divide the couple. (4) Stepcouples must build a new family culture while navigating previously established family cultures. (5) Ex-spouses (other parents outside the household) are part of the family. Some available data are shared on the impact of cultural and legal differences on these challenges. A three-level model of clinical intervention is presented: Psychoeducational, Interpersonal, and Intrapsychic/Intergenerational Family-of-Origin. The article describes some "easy wrong turns" for well-meaning therapists and lists some general clinical guidelines for working with stepfamily relationships.

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Divorce rates have dropped in the United States, except for couples over 50 where they are rising steeply, along with rates of late-life recoupling. Both stepcouples and their young adult and adult children in new older stepfamilies are often surprised to find themselves facing many of the same challenges that younger stepfamilies do. Some challenges are even intensified by the decades-long relationships and additional layers of extended family that come with recoupling after mid-life. Stepfamilies formed in later life must also negotiate decisions about estate planning and elder care among stakeholders who often have sharply divergent agendas before there is time to establish trusting relationships. This article describes the "normal" challenges facing stepcouples who come together over age 50. It provides evidence-informed guidance for therapists in meeting these challenges on three levels of clinical work: Psychoeducational, Interpersonal, and Intrapsychic/Intergenerational. As in younger stepfamilies, "family therapy" must usually begin in subsystems-often the adult stepcouple and parent-adult child. The article then describes a particularly fraught subgroup of recouplers: over-50 fathers and their new partners, where the dad's young adult or adult daughter is very unhappy with his new relationship. In these latter stepfamilies, father-daughter repair must precede stepfamily bonding. Stepfamilies that are preceded by a partner's death and those that begin with affairs are also discussed. Finally, some "easy wrong turns" for therapists are described.

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BACKGROUND: Stepfamilies remain poorly understood in Japanese society, and the support needs of stepfamily mothers are unclear. This study aimed to identify characteristics of stepfamilies and maternal mental health as compared with non-stepfamilies in Japan to utilize as a primary resource for providing effective support through community-based health care for stepfamilies. METHODS: From December 2011 to July 2012, we conducted this questionnaire survey with mothers at 3- and 4-month checkups for infants. The response rate was 75.1%. The sample for analysis included responses of 2246 mothers, excluding single mothers. RESULTS: Respondents comprised 47 (2.1%) stepfamilies and 2199 (97.9%) non-stepfamilies. There were significantly higher rates of parents with not more than a high school education and ≥3 children among stepfamilies compared with non-stepfamilies. Stepfamily mothers had significantly higher rates of feeling a lack of economic resources, absence of participation in childbirth education classes, smoking during pregnancy, and unplanned pregnancy. Furthermore, they also had significantly higher rates of depression and a lack of confidence in the parent role. Maternal depression was associated with factors such as maternal age, self-perceived health, stress level, confidence in breastfeeding, confidence in the parent role, and number of children. CONCLUSIONS: These findings suggest that stepfamilies exhibit many characteristics related to social disadvantage and problems with community-based health care in Japan. Healthcare providers should be aware of stepfamily mothers' support needs and should put in place a support system for stepfamilies. Moreover, compared with non-stepfamily mothers, stepfamily mothers have a significantly higher prevalence of depression. However, stepfamily composition does not necessarily increase the risk of maternal depression. Therefore, healthcare providers should put in place a system for obtaining more thorough information about stepfamilies and conduct an early assessment to identify their support needs.

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PURPOSE: Approximately one third of youth are estimated to live with a biological parent and stepparent before reaching adulthood. Additional research is warranted whereby stepfamily processes are identified that drive variation in youth adjustment, particularly physical health. We examined stepfather-child, mother-child, and stepcouple relationship quality as predictors of levels and changes in adolescent physical health over time. METHODS: We used a nationally representative sample of 1,233 adolescents living in biological mother-stepfather families from waves I (1994-1995) and II (1996) of the National Longitudinal Study of Adolescent to Adult Health. We incorporated measures of stepfather-child, mother-child, and stepcouple relationship quality, as well as adolescent reports of 10 physical health symptoms at waves I and II. Structural equation modeling was used to examine associations between wave I stepfamily relationships and adolescent physical symptoms at waves I and II. We used a zero-inflated negative binomial model to establish the validity of wave II adolescent physical symptoms as a predictor of an index of diagnosed chronic illnesses by wave IV (ages 26-32 years). RESULTS: Stepfather-child and mother-child relationship quality were negatively correlated with concurrent levels of adolescent physical symptoms. Stepfather-child relationship quality was negatively associated with change in adolescent physical symptoms over time. Adolescents with higher levels of physical symptoms at wave II were more likely to report chronic illnesses by adulthood. CONCLUSIONS: Stepfather-child relationship quality is a robust predictor of adolescent physical health throughout adolescence and is linked to chronic illness diagnoses in young adulthood. Future research should explore further the mechanisms that underlie this association.

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Children from prior relationships potentially complicate fertility decision-making in new cohabitations and marriages. On the one hand, the "value of children" perspective suggests that unions with and without stepchildren have similar-and deliberate-reasons for shared childbearing. On the other hand, multipartnered fertility (MPF) research suggests that childbearing across partnerships is often unintended. Using the 2006-2010 National Survey of Family Growth and event-history models, I examine the role of stepfamily status on cohabiting and married women's fertility and birth intendedness, with attention to union type and stepfamily configuration. Adjusting for covariates, women in stepfamily unions are more likely to have a first shared birth in a union than women in unions in which neither partner has children from past relationships, but stepfamily births are less likely to be intended than unintended. Further, this association varies by union type: married women have similar birth risks across stepfamily status, but births are less likely to be intended in marital stepfamilies. For cohabitors, women in a stepfamily are more likely to have a birth than women in nonstepfamily unions, with no differences in intendedness. Configuration (whose children and how many) also matters; for instance, women with one child from a past relationship are more likely to have a birth and to have an intended than unintended birth than women with other stepfamily configurations. It appears that children from either partner's prior relationships influences subsequent fertility decision-making, undermining the utility of the "value of children" perspective for explaining childbearing behaviors in complex families.

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Before reaching adulthood, one-third of all youth in the United States will reside in a stepfamily household-a familial context marked by distinct challenges. Relatively few studies have explored family processes that promote youth adjustment in stepfamilies, and even fewer studies have examined these links across adolescence, emerging adulthood, and beyond. To address these gaps, we use a nationally representative sample of 758 adolescent stepchildren to examine the concurrent and long-term influence of mother-child, stepfather-child, nonresident father-child, and stepcouple relationship quality on stepchildren's depression across three stages of development: adolescence, emerging adulthood, and young adulthood. Results from longitudinal structural equation modeling indicate that higher quality mother-child and stepfather-child relationships are directly associated with reductions in depression during adolescence, and indirectly associated with reductions in depression during emerging and young adulthood via prior levels of depression; higher quality stepcouple relationships are directly associated with reductions in depression during emerging and young adulthood.