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Transfer RNAs (tRNAs) are well known for their essential function as adapters in delivering amino acids to ribosomes and making the link between mRNA and protein according to the genetic code. Besides this central role in protein synthesis, other functions are attributed to these macromolecules, or their genes, in all living organisms. This review focuses on these extra functions of tRNAs in photosynthetic organisms. For example, tRNAs are implicated in tetrapyrrole biosynthesis, mRNA stabilization or transport, and priming the reverse transcription of viral RNAs, and tRNA-like structures play important roles in RNA viral genomes. Another important function of tRNAs in regulating gene expression is related to their cleavage allowing the production of small non-coding RNAs termed tRNA-derived RNAs. Here, we examine in more detail the biogenesis of tRNA-derived RNAs and their emerging functions in plants.

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CCCTC-binding factor (CTCF) critically contributes to 3D chromatin organization by determining topologically associated domain (TAD) borders. Although CTCF primarily binds at TAD borders, there also exist putative CTCF-binding sites within TADs, which are spread throughout the genome by retrotransposition. However, the detailed mechanism responsible for masking the putative CTCF-binding sites remains largely elusive. Here, we show that the ATP-dependent chromatin remodeler, chromodomain helicase DNA-binding 4 (CHD4), regulates chromatin accessibility to conceal aberrant CTCF-binding sites embedded in H3K9me3-enriched heterochromatic B2 short interspersed nuclear elements (SINEs) in mouse embryonic stem cells (mESCs). Upon CHD4 depletion, these aberrant CTCF-binding sites become accessible and aberrant CTCF recruitment occurs within TADs, resulting in disorganization of local TADs. RNA-binding intrinsically disordered domains (IDRs) of CHD4 are required to prevent this aberrant CTCF binding, and CHD4 is critical for the repression of B2 SINE transcripts. These results collectively reveal that a CHD4-mediated mechanism ensures appropriate CTCF binding and associated TAD organization in mESCs.

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Puberty is the gateway to adult reproductive competence, encompassing a suite of complex, integrative, and coordinated changes in neuroendocrine functions. However, the regulatory mechanisms of transcriptional reprogramming in the arcuate nucleus (ARC) during onset of puberty are still not fully understood. To understand the role of epigenetics in regulating gene expression, mouse hypothalamic ARCs were isolated at 4 and 8 weeks, and the transcriptome, DNA hydroxymethylation, DNA methylation, and chromatin accessibility were assessed via RNA sequencing (RNA-seq), reduced representation bisulfite sequencing (RRBS-seq), reduced representation hydroxymethylation profiling (RRHP)-seq, and assay for transposase-accessible chromatin (ATAC-seq), respectively. The overall DNA hydroxymethylation and DNA methylation changes in retroelements (REs) were associated with gene expression modeling for puberty in the ARC. We focused on analyzing DNA hydroxymethylation and DNA methylation at two short interspersed nuclear elements (SINEs) located on the promoter of the 5-hydroxytryptamine receptor 6 (Htr6) gene and the enhancer of the KISS-1 metastasis suppressor (Kiss1) gene and investigated their regulatory roles in gene expression. Our data uncovered a novel epigenetic mechanism by which SINEs regulate gene expression during puberty.

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Long non-coding RNAs (lncRNAs) have become increasingly important in the past decade. They are known to regulate gene expression and to interact with chromatin, proteins and other coding and non-coding RNAs. The study of lncRNAs has been challenging due to their low expression and the lack of tools developed to adapt to their particular features. Studies on lncRNAs performed to date have largely focused on cellular functions, whereas details on the mechanism of action has only been thoroughly investigated for a small number of lncRNAs. Nevertheless, some studies have highlighted the potential of these transcripts to contain functional domains, following the same accepted trend as proteins. Interestingly, many of these identified "domains" are attributed to functional units derived from transposable elements. Here, we review several types of functions of lncRNAs and relate these functions to lncRNA-embedded transposable elements.

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Short interspersed nuclear elements (SINEs) are non-autonomous retrotransposons that are highly abundant, but not well annotated, in plant genomes. In this study, we identified 41,573 copies of SINEs in seven citrus genomes, including 11,275 full-length copies. The citrus SINEs were distributed among 12 families, with an average full-length rate of 0.27, and were dispersed throughout the chromosomes, preferentially in AT-rich areas. Approximately 18.4% of citrus SINEs were found in close proximity (≤1 kb upstream) to genes, indicating a significant enrichment of SINEs in promoter regions. Citrus SINEs promote gene and genome evolution by offering exons as well as splice sites and start and stop codons, creating novel genes and forming tandem and dispersed repeat structures. Comparative analysis of unique homologous SINE-containing loci (HSCLs) revealed chromosome rearrangements in sweet orange, pummelo, and mandarin, suggesting that unique HSCLs might be valuable for understanding chromosomal abnormalities. This study of SINEs provides us with new perspectives and new avenues by which to understand the evolution of citrus genes and genomes.

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Short interspersed nuclear elements (SINEs) are small, non-autonomous and heterogeneous retrotransposons that are widespread in plants. To explore the amplification dynamics and evolutionary history of SINE populations in representative deciduous tree species, we analyzed the genomes of the six following Salicaceae species: Populus deltoides, Populus euphratica, Populus tremula, Populus tremuloides, Populus trichocarpa, and Salix purpurea. We identified 11 Salicaceae SINE families (SaliS-I to SaliS-XI), comprising 27 077 full-length copies. Most of these families harbor segmental similarities, providing evidence for SINE emergence by reshuffling or heterodimerization. We observed two SINE groups, differing in phylogenetic distribution pattern, similarity and 3' end structure. These groups probably emerged during the 'salicoid duplication' (~65 million years ago) in the Salix-Populus progenitor and during the separation of the genus Salix (45-65 million years ago), respectively. In contrast to conserved 5' start motifs across species and SINE families, the 3' ends are highly variable in sequence and length. This extraordinary 3'-end variability results from mutations in the poly(A) tail, which were fixed by subsequent amplificational bursts. We show that the dissemination of newly evolved 3' ends is accomplished by a displacement of older motifs, leading to various 3'-end subpopulations within the SaliS families.

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BACKGROUND: SINEs are a type of nonautonomous retrotransposon that can transpose from one site to be integrated elsewhere in an organism genome. SINE insertion can give rise to genetic variants and regulate gene expression, allowing organisms to acquire new adaptive capacity. Studies on this subject have focused on the impacts of SINEs on genes. However, ecological disparities in fish have not yet been explained by SINEs. RESULTS: New SINEs were isolated from Coilia nasus, which has two ecotypes-migratory and resident-that differ in their spawning and migration behaviors. The SINEs possess two structures that resemble a tRNA gene and a LINE retrotransposon tail. Comparison of olfactory tissue transcriptomes, intact SINE transcript copies were detected in only the migratory fish at the initial retrotransposition stage. The SINE DNA copy numbers were higher in the resident type than in the migratory type, while the frequency of SINE insertion was higher in the migratory type than in the resident type. Furthermore, SINE insertions can lead to new repeats of short DNA fragments in the genome, along with target site duplications. SINEs in the resident type have undergone excision via a mechanism in which predicted cleavage sites are formed by mutations, resulting in gaps that are then filled by microsatellites via microhomology-induced replication. CONCLUSIONS: Notably, SINEs in the resident type have undergone strong natural selection, causing genomic heteroplasmy and driving ecological diversity of C. nasus. Our results reveal possible evolutionary mechanisms underlying the ecological diversity at the interface between SINE mobilization and organism defense.

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Next-generation sequencing enables advances in the clinical application of genomics by providing high-throughput detection of genomic variation. However, next-generation sequencing technologies, especially whole-genome sequencing (WGS), are often associated with a high false-positive rate. Trio-based WGS can contribute significantly towards improved quality control methods. Mendelian-inconsistent calls (MIC) in parent-child trios are commonly attributed to erroneous sequencing calls, as the true de novo mutation rate is extremely low compared with MIC incidence. Here, we analyzed WGS data from 1314 mother, father, and child trios across ethnically diverse populations with the goal of characterizing MIC. Genotype calls in a trio can be used to assign different signatures to MIC. MIC occur more frequently within repeats but show varying distribution and error mechanisms across repeat types. MIC are enriched within poly-A/T runs in short interspersed nuclear elements. Alignability scores, allele balance, and relative parental read depth vary among MIC signatures and these differences should be considered when designing filters for MIC reduction. MIC cluster in germline deletions and these MIC also segregate with population. Our results provide a basis for making decisions on how each MIC type should be evaluated before discarding them as errors or including them in alternative applications. With the reduction of sequencing cost, family trio whole genome and exome analysis are being performed more routinely in clinical practice. We provide a reference that can be used for annotating MIC with their frequencies in a larger population to aid in the filtering of candidate de novo mutations.

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OBJECTIVE: Aim of present study was the set up of a fast and reliable protocol using species-specific markers for the quali-quantitative analysis of DNA and the detection of ruminant biological components in dairy products. For this purpose, the promoter of the gene coding for the α-lactoalbumin (LALBA) was chosen as possible candidate for the presence of short interspersed nuclear elements (SINEs). METHODS: DNA was isolated from somatic cells of 120 individual milk samples of cattle (30), Mediterranean river buffalo (30), goat (30), and sheep (30) and the gene promoter region (about 600/700 bp) of LALBA (from about 600 bp upstream of exon 1) has been sequenced. For the development of a single polymerase chain reaction (PCR) protocol that allows the simultaneous identification of DNA from the four species of ruminants, the following internal primers pair were used: 5'-CACTGATCTTAAAGCTCAGGTT-3' (forward) and 5'-TCAGA GTAGGCCACAGAAG-3' (reverse). RESULTS: Sequencing results of LALBA gene promoter region confirmed the presence of SINEs as monomorphic "within" and variable in size "among" the selected species. Amplicon lengths were 582 bp in cattle, 592 bp in buffalo, 655 in goat and 729 bp in sheep. PCR specificity was demonstrated by the detection of trace amounts of species-specific DNA from mixed sources (0.25 ng/µL). CONCLUSION: We developed a rapid PCR protocol for the quali-quantitative analysis of DNA and the traceability of dairy products using a species-specific marker with only one pair of primers. Our results validate the proposed technique as a suitable tool for a simple and inexpensive (economic) detection of animal origin components in foodstuffs.

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Short interspersed nuclear elements (SINEs) are non-autonomous transposable elements which are propagated by retrotransposition and constitute an inherent part of the genome of most eukaryotic species. Knowledge of heterogeneous and highly abundant SINEs is crucial for de novo (or improvement of) annotation of whole genome sequences. We scanned Poaceae genome sequences of six important cereals (Oryza sativa, Triticum aestivum, Hordeum vulgare, Panicum virgatum, Sorghum bicolor, Zea mays) and Brachypodium distachyon to examine the diversity and evolution of SINE populations. We comparatively analyzed the structural features, distribution, evolutionary relation and abundance of 32 SINE families and subfamilies within grasses, comprising 11 052 individual copies. The investigation of activity profiles within the Poaceae provides insights into their species-specific diversification and amplification. We found that Poaceae SINEs (PoaS) fall into two length categories: simple SINEs of up to 180 bp and dimeric SINEs larger than 240 bp. Detailed analysis at the nucleotide level revealed that multimerization of related and unrelated SINE copies is an important evolutionary mechanism of SINE formation. We conclude that PoaS families diversify by massive reshuffling between SINE families, likely caused by insertion of truncated copies, and provide a model for this evolutionary scenario. Twenty-eight of 32 PoaS families and subfamilies show significant conservation, in particular either in the 5' or 3' regions, across Poaceae species and share large sequence stretches with one or more other PoaS families.

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Short interspersed elements (SINEs) are non-autonomous retrotransposons that are widespread in eukaryotic genomes. They exhibit a chimeric sequence structure consisting of a small RNA-related head, an anonymous body and an AT-rich tail. Although their turnover and de novo emergence is rapid, some SINE elements found in distantly related species retain similarity in certain core segments (or highly conserved domains, HCD). We have characterized a new SINE element named RUDI in the bivalve molluscs Ruditapes decussatus and R. philippinarum and found this element to be widely distributed in the genomes of a number of mollusc species. An unexpected structural feature of RUDI is the HCD domain type V, which was first found in non-amniote vertebrate SINEs and in the SINE from one cnidarian species. In addition to the V domain, the overall sequence conservation pattern of RUDI elements resembles that found in ancient AmnSINE (~310 Myr old) and Au SINE (~320 Myr old) families, suggesting that RUDI might be among the most ancient SINE families. Sequence conservation suggests a monophyletic origin of RUDI. Nucleotide variability and phylogenetic analyses suggest long-term vertical inheritance combined with at least one horizontal transfer event as the most parsimonious explanation for the observed taxonomic distribution.

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Short interspersed nuclear elements (SINEs) are highly abundant non-autonomous retrotransposons that are widespread in plants. They are short in size, non-coding, show high sequence diversity, and are therefore mostly not or not correctly annotated in plant genome sequences. Hence, comparative studies on genomic SINE populations are rare. To explore the structural organization and impact of SINEs, we comparatively investigated the genome sequences of the Solanaceae species potato (Solanum tuberosum), tomato (Solanum lycopersicum), wild tomato (Solanum pennellii), and two pepper cultivars (Capsicum annuum). Based on 8.5 Gbp sequence data, we annotated 82 983 SINE copies belonging to 10 families and subfamilies on a base pair level. Solanaceae SINEs are dispersed over all chromosomes with enrichments in distal regions. Depending on the genome assemblies and gene predictions, 30% of all SINE copies are associated with genes, particularly frequent in introns and untranslated regions (UTRs). The close association with genes is family specific. More than 10% of all genes annotated in the Solanaceae species investigated contain at least one SINE insertion, and we found genes harbouring up to 16 SINE copies. We demonstrate the involvement of SINEs in gene and genome evolution including the donation of splice sites, start and stop codons and exons to genes, enlargement of introns and UTRs, generation of tandem-like duplications and transduction of adjacent sequence regions.

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Short interspersed nuclear elements (SINEs) are non-autonomous non-long terminal repeat retrotransposons which are widely distributed in eukaryotic organisms. While SINEs have been intensively studied in animals, only limited information is available about plant SINEs. We analysed 22 SINE families from seven genomes of the Amaranthaceae family and identified 34 806 SINEs, including 19 549 full-length copies. With the focus on sugar beet (Beta vulgaris), we performed a comparative analysis of the diversity, genomic and chromosomal organization and the methylation of SINEs to provide a detailed insight into the evolution and age of Amaranthaceae SINEs. The lengths of consensus sequences of SINEs range from 113 nucleotides (nt) up to 224 nt. The SINEs show dispersed distribution on all chromosomes but were found with higher incidence in subterminal euchromatic chromosome regions. The methylation of SINEs is increased compared with their flanking regions, and the strongest effect is visible for cytosines in the CHH context, indicating an involvement of asymmetric methylation in the silencing of SINEs.

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