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Background: Infertility is a global health challenge impacting quality of life, particularly in low and middle-income countries such as Sudan. The Fertility Quality of Life (FertiQoL) tool, a standardized questionnaire, is pivotal in assessing fertility-related quality of life. However, existing research on its utility has primarily been conducted in Global North and High-Income Countries, highlighting the need to shift away from neocolonialism to promote truly inclusive research and effective healthcare practices. Science diplomacy, through the adaptation and culturally sensitive implementation of research tools, can serve as a catalyst for addressing health disparities on a global scale. This study aims to assess methodological and cultural considerations that impact the implementation of the FertiQoL tool in Sudan, framed within the context of science diplomacy and neocolonialism. By investigating the challenges and opportunities of utilizing this tool in a non-Western cultural setting, we seek to contribute to the broader discussion on decolonizing global health research. Methods: Utilizing an explanatory sequential design involving surveys and interviews, we conducted a study in a Sudanese fertility clinic from November 2017 to May 2018. A total of 102 participants were recruited using convenience sampling, providing socio-demographic, medical, and reproductive history data. The Arabic version of FertiQoL was administered, with 20 participants interviewed and 82 surveyed (40 self-administered and 42 provider-administered). We applied descriptive statistics, one-way ANOVA, thematic analysis, and triangulation to explore methodological and cultural nuances. Results: Most participants were educated women who lived in urban areas. While the ANOVA results revealed no statistically significant differences in FertiQoL scores based on the mode of administration [core score (F(2,99) = 1.58, p = 0.21, η 2 = 0.03) and domain scores: emotional (F(2,99) = 1.85, p = 0.16, η 2 = 0.04); mind/body (F(2,99) = 1.95, p = 0.15, η 2 = 0.04); relational (F(2,99) = 0.18, p = 0.83, η 2 = 0.04); and social (F(2,99) = 1.67, p = 0.19, η 2 = 0.03)], qualitative insights unveiled vital cultural considerations. Interpretation challenges related to concepts like hope and jealousy emerged during interviews. Notably, the social domain of FertiQoL was found to inadequately capture the social pressures experienced by infertile individuals in Sudan, underscoring the importance of region-specific research. Despite these challenges, participants perceived FertiQoL as a comprehensive and valuable tool with broader utility beyond assessing fertility-related quality of life. Conclusion: Our findings emphasize the significance of incorporating cultural sensitivity into the interpretation of FertiQoL scores when implementing it globally. This approach aligns with the principles of science diplomacy and challenges neocolonial structures by acknowledging the unique lived experiences of local populations. By fostering cross-cultural understanding and inclusivity in research, we can enhance the implementation of FertiQoL and pave the way for novel interventions, increased funding, and policy developments in the Global South, ultimately promoting equitable global health.

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In ongoing-conflict-affected regions like Gaza, the prevalence of complex and intersecting post-traumatic stress disorders (PTSDs) necessitates innovative interventions. Our study explores a mental health care approach that has been culturally adapted for 15 years to address the complex landscape of PTSD in the Gaza Strip. Tarkiz was initially developed as 'Focusing', a metacognitive approach founded by Eugene Gendlin in 1950s Chicago. Tarkiz has been iteratively adapted and implemented for over a decade in Gaza by a team of local practitioners. The program's unique emphasis lies in its engagement approach, which relies on community participation and partnership building. The aim of this study was to qualitatively explore the perceived success of the program from the perspectives of the practitioners who adapted and delivered the program and the clients who participated in it. Data collection was driven by a multicultural research team, and prioritized capacity-building opportunities for Palestinian practitioners who lead on the development of research questions defining success. This exemplifies a successful science diplomacy model, emphasizing a collaborative approach, cultural sensitivity, and adaptable partnerships essential in global public health.

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The relevance of science diplomacy and open science in today's world is undeniable. Science diplomacy enables countries to jointly address pressing global challenges, such as climate change, pandemics, and food security. Open science, promoting accessible and transparent research, plays a pivotal role in this context. Nevertheless, the degree of openness is subject to specific circumstances, contingent upon varying factors, including local knowledge and resources. Latin America has not only been at the forefront of pioneering open access strategies, making it an interesting case to study, but it has also shown a tangible interest in using science diplomacy. Our research employs a mixed-methods approach, incorporating a quantitative survey involving 50 organizations and initiatives dedicated to promoting open science in Latin America, along with two qualitative focus group studies. Our primary objective is to assess if and how these entities use science diplomacy to achieve their objectives. Non-policy entities were prioritized due to their institutional stability in the region. We highlight successful strategies and delve into the existing barriers hindering the full implementation of open science principles. Our research aims to enhance collaboration between these organizations and policy and decision-makers by providing a set of recommendations in that direction. By shedding light on the current landscape and dynamics of open science in Latin America, we aspire to focus on science diplomacy, facilitate informed decision-making, and formulate policies that further propel the region along the path of openness, collaboration, and innovation in scientific research.

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Although science diplomacy has been gaining relevance in foreign policy to solve environmental challenges, critical questions concerning what different instruments mean under the term 'science diplomacy' and whether science diplomacy does contribute to the progress in solving environmental issues remain unanswered. We explore those questions by linking science diplomacy salient features through documentary analysis of international instruments addressing the plastics pollution in the ocean. We find that from a science diplomacy and multi-level governance perspective, the responsibilities and capabilities of emergent actors of cross-level governance are also important, leading to more attention being paid to changes in the role of national authorities, away from passive leadership to cross-cutting coalitions supported by the salient features of science diplomacy, and redefining dominant discursive approaches that have framed plastics waste. Points for practitioners: As a result of the cost and limitations of the current international mechanisms, there is currently no incentive for individual countries to take action against marine plastic pollution.Science diplomacy and multi-level governance can contribute to international cooperation, foreign policy and national strategies.Leading efforts to engage countries with fewer scientific and technological capabilities could benefit countries' foreign policy.

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This essay discusses the relationship between social theory and science diplomacy for both academic and policy application. This discussion is based on workpackage 2 Power with Science Diplomacy of H2020 Inventing a shared Science Diplomacy for Europe (InsSciDE) and consortium-wide discussions. The outcome of the discussions on theory of science diplomacy is that it is unfeasible to develop one theory of science diplomacy. Science diplomacy practice is rich and wide-ranging. Science diplomacy as a concept continues to be contested and there is no consensus on a definition, which makes for dynamic research and debate. The conceptual instability of science diplomacy complicates defining it. After defining science diplomacy, it remains unclear what about science diplomacy to theorize. Ideal types of science diplomacy practices address the definitional challenge for the time being and allow theorizing which brings order to rich empirical material and links science diplomacy practices to diplomacy analytically rather than normatively. Looking at science diplomacy as an independent, intermediary, or dependent variable contributes to theorizing it.

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Pressing global challenges, such as climate change, the COVID-19 pandemic, or antibiotic resistance, require coordinated international responses guided by evidence-informed decisions. For this purpose, it is critical that scientists engage in providing insights during the decision-making process. However, the mechanisms for the engagement of scientists in policy-making are complex and vary internationally, which often poses significant challenges to their involvement. Herein, we address some of the mechanisms and barriers for scientists to engage in policy-making with a global perspective by early-career scientists. We highlight the importance of scientific academies, societies, universities, and early-career networks as stakeholders and how they can adapt their structures to actively contribute to shaping global policies, with representative examples from chemistry-related disciplines. We showcase the importance of raising awareness, providing resources and training, and leading discussions about connecting emerging scientists with global decision-makers to address societal challenges through policies.

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Scientific diasporas have been identified as valuable resources to strengthen science, technology, and innovation in their countries of origin. In this context, our paper seeks to contribute by addressing the following research questions: What are the main features of the Costa Rican scientific diaspora, and what policy lessons can be extracted from their experiences abroad? Toward this goal, we analyzed ten years of diaspora perspectives as collected by TicoTal, an online database and network of Costa Rican scientists studying and working abroad created by the National Academy of Sciences (ANC) in 2010. Our study reveals the main features of the Costa Rican scientific diaspora using 121 interviews published over a ten-year period: we identified the academic areas in which the diaspora has specialized, the countries where they were trained, their current location, the most frequent funding mechanisms and sources that enabled professional opportunities abroad, the level of engagement and collaboration they maintain with the Costa Rican STI ecosystem, along with the incentives they consider important to support and harness the potential of this community to advance STI goals in the country. Results from this analysis can inform national policies and investment strategies in R&D infrastructure and resources, by providing a roadmap to engage with scientific diasporas and benefit from their training and talent, as well as guide future scholarship and exchange programs.

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Recent debates in the history of science aimed at reconstructing the history of scientific diplomacy have privileged the analysis of forms of diplomacy coming from above. Instead, the objective of this paper is to raise awareness of these debates by looking at attempts at scientific diplomacy from below. Such a shift in perspective might allow us to observe the impact of marginalized social agents on the construction of international diplomatic choices. This article particularly focuses attention on how the legacy of Bernalism has fostered the emergence of two different types of science diplomacy. On the one hand, Bernalism has influenced the goals of organizations such as UNESCO and the World Peace Council, which are forms of science diplomacy I would term from above. On the other hand, Bernalism has also been at the origin of radical scientific movements that I propose to interpret as forms of scientific diplomacy from below. These have, in fact, played a cardinal role not only in raising public awareness of the social and political roles of science, but also in the more direct participation of scientists in defining the political objectives of their research activity. From this point of view, I analyze how an association like the World Federation of Scientific Workers proposed (at least in the beginning) greater democratic participation than the top-down structures of other forms of scientific internationalism.

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Genome- or gene-editing (abbreviated here as 'GEd') presents great opportunities for crop improvement. This is especially so for the countries in the Asia-Pacific region, which is home to more than half of the world's growing population. A brief description of the science of gene-editing is provided with examples of GEd products. For the benefits of GEd technologies to be realized, international policy and regulatory environments must be clarified, otherwise non-tariff trade barriers will result. The status of regulations that relate to GEd crop products in Asian countries and Australasia are described, together with relevant definitions and responsible regulatory bodies. The regulatory landscape is changing rapidly: in some countries, the regulations are clear, in others they are developing, and some countries have yet to develop appropriate policies. There is clearly a need for the harmonization or alignment of GEd regulations in the region: this will promote the path-to-market and enable the benefits of GEd technologies to reach the end-users.

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The challenges and consequences of climate change have brought together governments around the world to advance scientific knowledge and programmatic actions to develop mitigation strategies while promoting sustainable development. The United States and China-the countries with the highest science expenditures globally-have historically developed a range of joint international research collaborations. However, under the "America First" agenda put forth by the Trump Administration, bilateral diplomatic relations with China reached their highest confrontational peak. Under this scenario science diplomacy served as a catalyst to maintain scientific collaborations between both countries. In 2018, the US National Science Foundation and the China National Natural Science Foundation launched the InFEWS US-China program to promote collaborations to expand food, energy, and water nexus (FEW Nexus) research and applications. Over the past four years, 20 research projects have been awarded from the US side and 47 publications have been reported as research output. By carrying out a descriptive analysis of the InFEWS US-China research and scholarly outputs, we find evidence of the crucial role played by the Chinese scientific diaspora who led 65% of the projects awarded. We find that there is a generally good understanding of the interdependencies between FEW systems included in the project abstracts. However, in the InFEWS US-China scholarly outputs generated to date, there is a lack of usage of a clear FEW Nexus theoretical framework. Further research should address intentional policies that enhance the involvement of scientific diasporas in their home countries to better address climate, sustainability, and development challenges.

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RAICEX (Red de Asociaciones de Investigadores y Científicos Españoles en el Exterior), the Network of Associations of Spanish Researchers and Scientist Abroad, consists of more than 4,000 Spanish researchers distributed in 18 countries in 5 different continents. RAICEX was established in July 2018 by 15 foundational members: the associations of Spanish Researchers in the USA, México, Ireland, Sweden, Denmark, France, Italy, Japan, Australia, China, UK, Germany, Switzerland, Belgium, and Norway. Since then, 3 more associations have joined: Emirates, Netherlands and South Africa. RAICEX was born with the main goal: "promoting the exchange of experiences and knowledge between Spanish researchers and scientists abroad and all the stakeholders of the Spanish System of Science, Technology and Innovation (SECTI), serving as an advisory body, information channel and catalyst for international relations in scientific matters, contributing to the progress of science." Their main objectives are: (1) to provide support to researchers and scientists in mobility and personal development, offering training, information and guidance, as well as providing contact with all the other associations that make up the global network; (2) to disseminate and give visibility to the value of Science and the work of researchers and scientists, promoting communication of the advances of knowledge in all areas of society; (3) to promote international relations and cooperation between researchers / scientists and public and private organizations, from a global perspective; (4) to share the acquired knowledge and experience in different research and science systems abroad to advise, provide feedback and contribute to the progress of the whole SECTI. In this Case Study a particular scenario of the Spanish scientific diaspora, including history, reasons for going abroad, and consequences for the Spanish R&D system, shall be introduced to readers. The impact that RAICEX and its foundational members have had in the Spanish National System since the creation of the first community in the UK by 2012 will also be discussed. RAICEX's activities range from providing advice to newcomers and carrying out science dissemination, to becoming an advisory body to governments and institutions. The Spanish scientific diaspora is an extensive network committed to cooperation and brain connection.

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Increasingly, science diaspora networks are managed by formal organizations such as embassies or non-profit organizations. Researchers have studied these networks to understand how they influence international collaborations and science diplomacy, and to determine which network activities foster those outcomes and which do not. In this perspective, we suggest that many of these network organizations confront an underappreciated conundrum for managing resources: organizations with few resources must learn how to obtain more resources despite lacking means to do so. To substantiate our suggestion, we do the following. We review exploratory results from a study of network organizations that indicate that these organizations generally lack resources, learn too little from each other, and struggle to overcome the resource conundrum. We also show that this conundrum is expected from organizational theory based on bounded rationality. To help organizations confront the issue, we do the following. First we provide a new database of operating science diaspora networks. We encourage managers of network organizations to use it as a resource to identify peers with whom to regularly exchange knowledge about securing resources. We also suggest that other scientific organizations should infuse network organizations with fresh resources. Ultimately, we urge all relevant stakeholders to recognize that the conundrum results not from the shortcomings of individual managers, but rather is a legitimate organizational phenomena that must be addressed by organizational design.

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Utilizing the expertise and knowledge resources of the diaspora, particularly the scientific diaspora, has been part of the strategies of many countries. In the recent years, realizing the importance of the potential of the diaspora to contribute to national development and Science, Technology, and Innovation ecosystem, countries have used Science Diplomacy also to engage with the scientific diaspora. Science Diplomacy is hailed as an enabler and facilitator and is often seen in the context of international S&T collaboration or big science projects. But the use of Science Diplomacy for diaspora engagement calls for specific strategies and meaningful initiatives. India is one of the major developing countries that has given a major thrust to engaging with the scientific diaspora. India is also a leading player in the global Science Diplomacy arena. This article critically examines India's initiatives and strategies for engagement with the scientific diaspora. It points out that the Science Diplomacy dimension is missing in this. Using examples from other countries, recent thinking, and developments in Science Diplomacy, this study outlines an approach with some examples of strategies and initiatives for harnessing Science Diplomacy to enhance engagement with the scientific diaspora and create a win-win milieu for India and the diaspora. The approach takes into account the proposed and ongoing initiatives in emerging technologies in India, including quantum technologies and Artificial Intelligence. Such a framework will create a synergy among various programs and initiatives by using Science Diplomacy as a facilitator and catalyst. Under this framework, Diaspora is involved not only as experts and contributors to scientific advancements but also as stakeholders. This dual role of the STI Diaspora can bring a paradigm shift in traditional understanding and use of science diplomacy, particularly to engage and harness the potential of the STI Diaspora for Sustainable Development.

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The current knowledge society has driven an unprecedented mobility of people, especially scientists, from emerging economies to developed countries. This mobility can allow the development of human talent and the access to first class infrastructure and resources, but it can also mean a loss for emerging economies due to the phenomenon of brain drain. To counteract this situation, some countries in Latin America and the Caribbean have developed models for the articulation of their scientific diaspora in projects and programs, with the aim of exchanging knowledge and capitalizing on human and technical resources to advance science, technology and innovation systems. Likewise, science diplomacy has become a tool for interlinking the work of various actors in order to advance the solution of national, transnational or global problems through scientific advice. Scientific diasporas are vital in new structures of cooperation, enabling them to innovate and solve problems jointly, advising their countries of origin and articulating policies and programs. This research seeks to analyze the interactions and initiatives identified between the organized scientific diaspora from Latin America and the Caribbean and their countries of origin in relation to science diplomacy processes, providing recommendations and proposals for public policy to improve the interaction between the diaspora and the governments of their countries of origin. Results show that diaspora organizations from Latin America and the Caribbean engage with governmental and non-state actors and are active science diplomacy stakeholders promoting the scientific developments of their country or their researchers, as well as enabling access to research resources creating alliances for scientific, institutional and academic collaborations. In the cases studied, these efforts are planned and executed by the diaspora without responding to any science diplomacy strategy of the country. Policies and programs are needed to effectively link the scientific diaspora organizations to the interests of the countries.

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The nexus between transnational mobilization and Science and Technology Studies (STS) offers a productive platform for studying the formation of scientific activism, the influence of mobilization on scientific developments, and the ways science is used to achieve government goals. Integrating concepts from both sets of literature - particularly national sociotechnical imaginaries and socio-spatial positionality - this article explores how Dr Chaim Weizmann, a prominent chemist and a Zionist leader, attempted to construct and mobilize a 'scientific diaspora'. Empirically, the article draws on new archival evidence, revealing the hitherto unknown early efforts of the Zionist movement to acquire nuclear reactor and utilize the Jewish involvement in the American nuclear project for political leverage abroad. Theoretically, rather than beginning the analysis with a scientific-diasporic network that was ready to be mobilized, we trace the selective and tailored practices employed by Weizmann to animate the Jewish connection among nuclear scientists and professionals.

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Actualizing the vision of Global Digital Health is a central issue on the Global Health Diplomacy agenda. The COVID-reinforced need for accelerated digital health progress will require political structures and processes to build a foundation for Global Digital Health. Simultaneously, Global Health Diplomacy uses digital technologies in its enactment. Both phenomena have driven interest in the term "Digital Health Diplomacy." A review of the literature revealed 2 emerging but distinct definitions that have been published very recently, each with its associated discourse and practice. This multiplicity of ideas demonstrates the myriad ways in which global digital and political systems are becoming increasingly entangled. Untangling these, this paper proposes and discusses 3 dimensions of Digital Health Diplomacy: "Diplomacy for digital health," "Digital health for diplomacy," and "Digital health in diplomacy." It calls upon digital health professionals, diplomats, political and social scientists, epidemiologists, and clinicians to discuss, critique, and advance this emerging domain.

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