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The black-footed cat (Felis nigripes) is endemic to the arid regions of southern Africa. One of the world's smallest wild felids, the species occurs at low densities and is secretive and elusive, which makes ecological studies difficult. Genetic data could provide key information such as estimates on population size, sex ratios, and genetic diversity. In this study, we test if microsatellite loci can be successfully amplified from scat samples that could be noninvasively collected from the field. Using 21 blood and scat samples collected from the same individuals, we statistically tested whether nine microsatellites previously designed for use in domestic cats can be used to identify individual black-footed cats. Genotypes recovered from blood and scat samples were compared to assess loss of heterozygosity, allele dropout, and false alleles resulting from DNA degradation or PCR inhibitors present in scat samples. The microsatellite markers were also used to identify individuals from scats collected in the field that were not linked to any blood samples. All nine microsatellites used in this study were amplified successfully and were polymorphic. Microsatellite loci were found to have sufficient discriminatory power to distinguish individuals and identify clones. In conclusion, these molecular markers can be used to monitor populations of wild black-footed cats noninvasively. The genetic data will be able to contribute important information that may be used to guide future conservation initiatives.

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A comprehensive understanding of the dietary habits of carnivores is essential to get ecological insights into their role in the ecosystem, potential competition with other carnivorous species, and their effect on prey populations. Genetic analysis of non-invasive samples, such as scats, can supplement behavioural or microscopic diet investigations. The objective of this study was to employ DNA metabarcoding to accurately determine the prey species in grey wolf (Canis lupus) and Eurasian lynx (Lynx lynx) scat samples collected in the Julian Alps and the Dinaric Mountains, Slovenia. The primary prey of wolves were red deer (Cervus elaphus) (detected in 96% scat samples), European roe deer (Capreolus capreolus) (68%), and wild boar (Sus scrofa) (45%). A smaller portion of their diet consisted of mesocarnivores, small mammals, and domestic animals. In contrast, the lynx diet mostly consisted of European roe deer (82%) and red deer (64%). However, small mammals and domestic animals were also present in lynx diet, albeit to a lesser extent. Our findings indicate that the dietary habits of wolves and lynx are influenced by geographical location. Snapshot dietary analyses using metabarcoding are valuable for comprehending the behaviour and ecology of predators, and for devising conservation measures aimed at sustainable management of both their natural habitats and prey populations. However, to gain a more detailed understanding of wolf and lynx dietary habits and ecological impact, it would be essential to conduct long-term genetic monitoring of their diet.

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Abstract The red fox (Vulpes vulpes) is a medium-sized carnivore that occurs in different regions of Pakistan, however, still lacks scientific data on its ecology and distribution. The current study investigated the phylogenetic status and diet of the red fox (V.v. griffithii) occurring in Ayubia National Park, Pakistan. Through camera trapping and molecular analysis, we confirmed the occurrence of red fox in the study area. Based on mitochondrial cytochrome B (304 bp) and limited sampling, nearly all red foxes of Ayubia National Park and surrounding Himalayan ranges fall within Holarctic maternal lineage, whereas red foxes found in plains of Pakistan are part of the basal Palearctic maternal lineage. Using 32 scats, we found that red fox diet comprises of 80% animal-based prey species (both wild and domestic) and 19% plant matter. The wild animal prey species included Cape hare (Lepus capensis) and flying squirrel (Pteromyini sp.), which constituted 17% and 15% of diet, respectively. Red foxes infrequently consumed House mouse (Mus musculus), Himalayan Palm civet (Paguma larvata) and sheep (Ovis aries), each comprising around 6% to 9% of red fox diet. The fox species also scavenged on domestic donkey opportunistically. Based on our sampling, our study suggests that the red fox (V.v. griffithii) that occurs in Ayubia National Park and across the lesser Himalayan ranges belongs to Holarctic maternal lineage. The study also highlights consumption of plant seeds by red foxes, indicating it may play an important ecological role in seed dispersal in Ayubia National Park.

Resumo A raposa-vermelha (Vulpes vulpes) é um carnívoro de médio porte que ocorre em diferentes regiões do Paquistão, porém ainda carece de dados científicos sobre sua ecologia e distribuição. O presente estudo investigou o status filogenético e a dieta da raposa-vermelha (V.v. griffithii) que ocorre no Parque Nacional de Ayubia, Paquistão. Por meio de armadilhas fotográficas e análises moleculares, confirmamos a ocorrência de raposa-vermelha na área de estudo. Com base no citocromo B mitocondrial (304 bp) e amostragem limitada, quase todas as raposas-vermelhas do Parque Nacional de Ayubia e áreas circundantes do Himalaia se enquadram na linhagem materna holártica, enquanto as raposas-vermelhas encontradas nas planícies do Paquistão fazem parte da linhagem materna basal paleártica. Usando 32 fezes, descobrimos que a dieta da raposa-vermelha compreende 80% de espécies de presas de origem animal (selvagens e domésticas) e 19% de matéria vegetal. As espécies de presas de animais selvagens incluíram a lebre-do-cabo (Lepus capensis) e o esquilo-voador (Pteromyini sp.), que constituíram 17% e 15% da dieta, respectivamente. As raposas-vermelhas consumiam raramente ratos domésticos (Mus musculus), algas do Himalaia (Paguma larvata) e ovelhas (Ovis aries), cada um compreendendo cerca de 6% a 9% da dieta da raposa-vermelha. A espécie de raposa também se alimentava de burros domésticos de forma oportunista. Com base em nossa amostragem, nosso estudo sugere que a raposa-vermelha (V.v. griffithii) que ocorre no Parque Nacional de Ayubia e nas cordilheiras menores do Himalaia pertence à linhagem materna holártica. O estudo também destaca o consumo de sementes de plantas por raposas-vermelhas, indicando que pode desempenhar um papel ecológico importante na dispersão de sementes no Parque Nacional de Ayubia.

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Mangrove forest is one of the productive ecosystems that provide essential habitats for various fauna as breeding and feeding drives. However, heavy metal pollution in the mangrove forest has led to severe health problems for several aquatic species. Biomonitoring of metals using a nondestructive method is an emerging technique. Scats of the fishing cat (Prionailurus viverrinus) were collected from five locations in the Godavari estuary mangrove habitats, Coringa Wildlife Sanctuary, Andhra Pradesh, India, to determine the level of various metals. An opportunistic method was applied to collect scats in the mangrove forest. Six scat samples were collected from each of the sampling sites. The following prey species, such as crabs, fishes, birds, rodents, plants, plastics, and unidentifiable prey matters, were found in the scats. Select metals, such as chromium (Cr), copper (Cu), and lead (Pb) were analyzed from the scats of the fishing cat since they intensively influence the physiology and behavior of top predators. The concentration of Cu in fishing cat scats was higher than the other two metals assessed. Metals showed statistically substantial variation across locations (p < 0.05). According to the current study, heavy metals may significantly threaten the fishing cat in the Coringa Wildlife Sanctuary. The fishing cat is a vulnerable species in accordance with the ICUN categories. Due to pollution and other human pressures, the fishing cat may soon be categorized as a threatened or endangered species; the research advises that authorities should prioritize the protection of the vulnerable species of the fishing cat from the Coringa Wildlife Sanctuary, Andhra Pradesh, India.

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Some carnivorous mammals ingest fruit and disperse seeds of forest plant species capable of colonizing disturbed areas in ecosystems. The objective of the present study was to evaluate the dissemination of Arctostaphylos pungens and Juniperus deppeana seeds by the gray fox (Urocyon cinereoargenteus), coyote (Canis latrans), and other carnivores in the Protected Natural Area Sierra Fría, in Aguascalientes, Mexico. Scat collection was undertaken via transects using the direct search method, while the seasonal phenology of A. pungens and J. deppeana was evaluated by recording flower and fruit abundance on both the plant and the surrounding forest floor ground. Seed viability was assessed by optical densitometry via X-ray and a germination test. It was found that the gray fox, coyote, ringtail (Bassariscus astutus), and bobcat (Lynx rufus) disseminated seeds of A. pungens (212 ± 48.9 seeds/scat) and J. deppeana (23.6 ± 4.9 seeds/scat), since a large proportion of the collected scat of these species contained seeds (28/30 = 93.33%, 12/43 = 27.9%, 6/12 = 50% and 7/25 = 28% respectively). The gray fox, coyote, ringtail, and bobcat presented an average of seed dispersion of both plant species of 185.4 ± 228.7, 4.0 ± 20.0, 12.1 ± 30.4, and 0.8 ± 1.5 per scat; the seed proportions in the gray fox, coyote, ringtail, and bobcat were 89.6/10.4%, 82.3/17.7%, 90.4/9.6%, and 38.1/61.9% for A. pungens and J. deppeana, respectively. The phenology indicated a finding related to the greater abundance of ripe fruit in autumn and winter (p < .01). This coincided with the greater abundance of seeds found in scats during these seasons. Endozoochory and diploendozoochory enhanced the viability and germination of the seeds (p > .05), except in those of A. pungens dispersed by coyote. These results suggest that carnivores, particularly the gray fox, the coyote, and the bobcat, play an important role in forest seed dissemination, and thus forest regeneration, by making both a quantitative and qualitative contribution to the dispersal of the two pioneer species under study.

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Ecological dynamics and faunal diversity documentation is normally conducted by direct observation and trapping of live animals. However, surveys of carnivore scat prey and surface bone remains, which are relatively inexpensive, can provide complementary data that expand carnivore diet breadth and may improve accuracy regarding inferences of the ecological dynamics of a given ecosystem. We used this inexpensive method to document species diversity variation with elevation on the leeward (Sirimon) and windward (Chogoria) areas of Mt. Kenya. Bone and fecal specimens were opportunistically collected by walking 2 km in opposite directions from transect points selected at 200-m intervals along the elevational gradient of the study areas. We collected a total of 220 carnivore fecal and owl pellet specimens from both study sites, which were mainly deposited by the spotted hyena (Crocuta crocuta), leopard (Panthera pardus), serval (Leptailurus serval), genet (Genetta sp.), and Mackinder's Cape owl (Bubo capensis mackinderi). Serval scats were the most common, followed by those of the spotted hyena. Scats and bones were found at the lowest density at the lowest elevations, peaked at mid-higher elevations, and then declined at the highest elevations. Based on skeletal analysis only, there were more species in Sirimon (19) than in Chogoria (12). Small fauna (rodents to duiker size bovids) formed the bulk of the identified remains, representing 87.9% of the Sirimon fauna and 90.9% of the Chogoria fauna. The genus Otomys was the dominant prey of the owl and serval in both sites. Three giraffe teeth were found at 3 500 m a.s.l. in Chogoria on the edge of Lake Ellis, suggesting that it is an occasional visitor to such high elevations. This study underscores the value of fecal and bone surveys in understanding the diet and diversity of mammals in ecological ecosystems, but such surveys should be complemented with analysis of hairs found in scats to obtain a more complete list of carnivore prey at Mt. Kenya.

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The dramatic increase of microplastics (plastic fragments <5 mm) in marine environments is a problem that has attracted public attention globally. Within the different types of microplastics, microfibres are the least studied (size <1 mm). We examined 51 female scats from a population in Northern Patagonia. Our results showed no presence of microplastic particles, however 67% of them showed a remarkable abundance of microfibers, which until now had only been reported in animals fed in captivity. As a result of this work we propose that the examination of scats from South American Fur Seal and also other pinnipeds could be an efficient tool to monitor environmental levels of microfibres and maybe microplastics in the environment due to the easy recognition of the animals and their scats.

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Scats are often used to study ecological parameters of carnivore species. However, field identification of carnivore scats, based on their morphological characteristics, becomes difficult if many carnivore species are distributed in the same area. We assessed error rates in morphological identification of five sympatric carnivores' scats in north-eastern Himalayan region of Pakistan during 2013-2017. A sample of 149 scats were subjected to molecular identification using fecal DNA. We used a confusion matrix to assess different types of errors associated with carnivore scat identification. We were able to amplify DNA from 96.6% (n = 144) of scats. Based on field identification of carnivore scats, we had predicted that out of 144 scats: 11 (7.6%) scats were from common leopard, 38 (26.4%) from red fox, 29 (20.1%) from Asiatic jackal, 37 (25.7%) from yellow throated martin, 14 (9.7%) from Asian palm civet and 15 (10.4%) from small Indian civet. However, molecular identification revealed and confirmed nine were scats (6.24%) from common leopard, 40 (27.8 %) from red fox, 21 (14.6%) from Asiatic jackal, 45 (31.25%) from Asian palm civet, 12 (8.3%) scats from small Indian civet, while 11 scats (7.6%) were found from Canis lupus Spp., three (2%) from dog, one (0.7 %) scat sample from porcupine, and two (1.4%) from rhesus monkey. Misidentification rate was highest for Asian palm civet (25.7%), followed by red fox (11.1%) and Asiatic jackal (9.7%) but least for common leopard scats (4.2%). The results specific to our study area concur with previous studies that have recommended that carnivore monitoring programs utilize molecular identification of predator scats. Using only morphological identification of scats can be misleading and may result in wrong management decisions.

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Abstract Although dietary studies are considered an important conservation tool, few studies have assessed jaguar (Panthera onca) diet in Costa Rica. Therefore, this study describes the diet composition of the jaguar in Tortuguero National Park, Costa Rica, carried out by analyzing and comparing carcass (n = 1 374), scat (n = 75) and camera trap (n = 3) data, collected between 2012 and 2016. Our results indicated that jaguar diet in this area consisted of at least 20 prey species. The green sea turtle (Chelonia mydas) was the most frequent item based on carcass data, while the white-lipped peccary (Tayassu pecari) was the major prey species according to the scat analysis. Our results highlight the importance of combining different methods to describe the jaguar feeding habits. Further research should focus on calculating jaguar and terrestrial prey species abundance in the study area, information that would help to complement our findings. Rev. Biol. Trop. 66(1): 70-77. Epub 2018 March 01.

Resumen Aunque los estudios de dieta son una herramienta importante en la conservación de las especies, pocas investigaciones han evaluado la dieta del jaguar (Panthera onca) en Costa Rica. Por lo tanto, este estudio describe la dieta del jaguar en el Parque Nacional Tortuguero, Costa Rica, mediante el análisis y comparación de los registros de cadáveres (n = 1 374), excretas (n = 75) y cámaras trampa (n = 3) colectados entre el 2012 y el 2016. Nuestros resultados indican que la dieta del jaguar consiste de al menos 20 especies; la tortuga verde (Chelonia mydas) fue la especie más importante según los datos de cadáveres, mientras que el chancho de monte (Tayassu pecari) fue la principal especie presa según el análisis de excretas. Nuestros resultados destacan la importancia de combinar diferentes métodos con el fin de obtener una descripción precisa de los hábitos alimenticios del jaguar. Se recomienda que futuros estudios estimen la abundancia del jaguar y sus especies presa terrestres, lo cual permitirá complementar nuestros resultados.

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The ability to detect the incursion of an invasive species or destroy the last individuals during an eradication program are some of the most difficult aspects of invasive species management. The presence of foxes in Tasmania is a contentious issue with recent structured monitoring efforts, involving collection of carnivore scats and testing for fox DNA, failing to detect any evidence of foxes. Understanding the likelihood that monitoring efforts would detect fox presence, given at least one is present, is therefore critical for understanding the role of scat monitoring for informing the response to an incursion. We undertook trials to estimate the probability of fox scat detection through monitoring by scat-detector dogs and person searches and used this information to critically evaluate the power of scat monitoring efforts for detecting foxes in the Tasmanian landscape. The probability of detecting a single scat present in a 1-km2 survey unit was highest for scat-detector dogs searches (0.053) compared with person searches (x¯â‰…0.015) for each 10 km of search effort. Simulation of the power of recent scat monitoring efforts undertaken in Tasmania from 2011 to 2015 suggested that single foxes would have to be present in at least 20 different locations or fox breeding groups present in at least six different locations, in order to be detected with a high level of confidence (>0.80). We have shown that highly structured detection trials can provide managers with the quantitative tools needed to make judgments about the power of large-scale scat monitoring programs. Results suggest that a fox population, if present in Tasmania, could remain undetected by a large-scale, structured scat monitoring program. Therefore, it is likely that other forms of surveillance, in conjunction with scat monitoring, will be necessary to demonstrate that foxes are absent from Tasmania with high confidence.

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Gelatinous zooplankton are a large component of the animal biomass in all marine environments, but are considered to be uncommon in the diet of most marine top predators. However, the diets of key predator groups like seabirds have conventionally been assessed from stomach content analyses, which cannot detect most gelatinous prey. As marine top predators are used to identify changes in the overall species composition of marine ecosystems, such biases in dietary assessment may impact our detection of important ecosystem regime shifts. We investigated albatross diet using DNA metabarcoding of scats to assess the prevalence of gelatinous zooplankton consumption by two albatross species, one of which is used as an indicator species for ecosystem monitoring. Black-browed and Campbell albatross scats were collected from eight breeding colonies covering the circumpolar range of these birds over two consecutive breeding seasons. Fish was the main dietary item at most sites; however, cnidarian DNA, primarily from scyphozoan jellyfish, was present in 42% of samples overall and up to 80% of samples at some sites. Jellyfish was detected during all breeding stages and consumed by adults and chicks. Trawl fishery catches of jellyfish near the Falkland Islands indicate a similar frequency of jellyfish occurrence in albatross diets in years of high and low jellyfish availability, suggesting jellyfish consumption may be selective rather than opportunistic. Warmer oceans and overfishing of finfish are predicted to favour jellyfish population increases, and we demonstrate here that dietary DNA metabarcoding enables measurements of the contribution of gelatinous zooplankton to the diet of marine predators.

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Many ecological studies and conservation management plans employ noninvasive scat sampling based on the assumption that species' scats can be correctly identified in the field. However, in habitats with sympatric similarly sized carnivores, misidentification of scats is frequent and can lead to bias in research results. To address the scat identification dilemma, molecular scatology techniques have been developed to extract DNA from the donor cells present on the outer lining of the scat samples. A total of 100 samples were collected in the winter of 2009 and 2011 in Taxkorgan region of Xinjiang, China. DNA was extracted successfully from 88% of samples and genetic species identification showed that more than half the scats identified in the field as snow leopard (Panthera uncia) actually belonged to fox (Vulpes vulpes). Correlation between scat characteristics and species were investigated, showing that diameter and dry weight of the scat were significantly different between the species. However it was not possible to define a precise range of values for each species because of extensive overlap between the morphological values. This preliminary study confirms that identification of snow leopard feces in the field is misleading. Research that relies upon scat samples to assess distribution or diet of the snow leopard should therefore employ molecular scatology techniques. These methods are financially accessible and employ relatively simple laboratory procedures that can give an indisputable response to species identification from scats.

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Este estudio caracteriza la dieta de Leopardus colocolo en los alrededores del lago Junín, en el centro del Perú, a partir de los restos de las presas presentes en 43 heces. El origen de las heces del predador se determinó a partir del ADN mitocondrial de las células epiteliales intestinales adheridas a la superficie de las heces, utilizando como marcador la región de control. Los restos de las presas fueron identificados utilizando literatura especializada y la comparación con especímenes de colección, identificando un total of 14 ítems alimenticios pertenecientes a mamíferos de las familias Cricetidae (6), Chinchillidae (1) y Caviidae (1) y aves de las familias Anatidae (3) y Rallidae (2), y un grupo de aves no identificadas (1). Los roedores fueron el principal componente de la dieta de L. colocolo, en frecuencia y biomasa, seguido por las aves. Entre los ítems alimenticios consumidos, el roedor cricétido pequeño Calomys sp. fue el más frecuente; sin embargo, el mayor aporte de biomasa relativa fue proporcionado por el roedor mediano Cavia tschudii. La amplitud de nicho obtenida fue baja (Bsta= 0.17), indicando una dieta especializada. Nuestros resultados confirman que, como ocurre con la mayoría de felinos pequeños neotropicales, L. colocolo es un predador especializado en la captura de vertebrados, principalmente mamíferos pequeños. No se registró variación estacional en la dieta y el análisis de las clases de edad de los roedores cricétidos mostró que los adultos fueron los más consumidos. Se infiere que L. colocolo tiene un patrón de actividad diurno y nocturno

This study characterized the diet of Leopardus colocolo from the surroundings of Junín lake, in the center of Peru, from prey remnants found within 43 scats. Origin of predator scats was determined from mitochondrial DNA from intestinal epithelial cells existing on the surface of the scats, using as a marker the control region. The prey remnants were identified using specialized literature and comparison with a voucher collection, identifying a total of 14 food items belong to mammals of Cricetidae (6), Chinchillidae (1) and Caviidae (1) families, birds of Anatidae (3) and Rallidae (2) families and one group of unidentified birds. The rodents were the main component of the diet of L. colocolo, in frequency and biomass, followed by birds. Among the food items consumed, the small cricetine rodent Calomys sp. was the most frequent; however, the greatest relative biomass contribution was provided by the medium rodent Cavia tschudii. The niche breadth obtained was low (Bsta= 0.17), indicating a specialized diet. Our results confirm that, as with most neotropical small felids, L. colocolo is a predator specialized in capturing vertebrates, mainly small mammals. No seasonal variation was recorded in the diet and the analysis of the age class of the cricetine rodents showed that the adults were the most consumed. It is inferred that L. colocolo have diurnal and nocturnal activity patterns

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BACKGROUND: Although the spasticity syndrome is an important sensorimotor disorder, the impact of grade of lower limb muscle hypertonia, spasm and clonus activity on voluntary muscle function, gait and daily activities has not been systematically analysed during subacute and chronic spinal cord injury (SCI). OBJECTIVE: To determine the prevalence of spasticity signs and symptoms during SCI, and to assess their impact on motor function and activities. METHODS: A descriptive transverse study of sixty-six subjects with SCI was performed by assessing injury characteristics, spasticity (modified Ashworth scale, Penn scale, SCATS scale) and motor function (lower limb manual muscle scores, WISCI II, spinal cord injury spasticity evaluation tool). RESULTS: Most subjects with the spasticity syndrome presented lower limb hypertonia and spasms during both subacute and chronic SCI, interfering with daily life activities. Subjects with incomplete SCI and hypertonia revealed a loss of voluntary flexor muscle activity, while extensors spasms contributed strongly to loss of gait function. The Penn spasms scale no correlated with muscle function or gait. CONCLUSIONS: Specific diagnosis of spasm activity during subacute SCI, and its impact on lower limb voluntary muscle activity, gait function and daily activities, is required to develop a more effective neurorehabilitation treatment strategy.

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