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The root dielectric response was measured on a minute scale to assess its efficiency for monitoring short-term cadmium (Cd) toxicity non-destructively. Electrical capacitance (CR), dissipation factor (DR) and electrical conductance (GR) were detected during the 24 to 168 h after Cd treatment (0, 20, 50 mg Cd2+ kg-1 substrate) in potted maize, cucumber and pea. Stress was also evaluated by measuring leaf chlorophyll content, Fv/Fm and stomatal conductance (gs) in situ, and shoot and root mass and total root length after harvest. CR showed a clear diurnal pattern, reflecting the water uptake rate, and decreased significantly in response to excessive Cd due to impeded root growth, the reduced tissue permittivity caused by accelerated lignification, and root ageing. Cd exposure markedly increased DR, indicating greater conductive energy loss due to oxidative membrane damage and enhanced electrolyte leakage. GR, which was coupled with root hydraulic conductance and varied diurnally, was increased transiently by Cd toxicity due to enhanced membrane permeability, but declined thereafter owing to stress-induced leaf senescence and transpiration loss. The time series of impedance components indicated the comparatively high Cd tolerance of the applied maize and the sensitivity of pea cultivar, which was confirmed by visible shoot symptoms, repeated physiological investigations and biomass measurements. The results demonstrated the potential of single-frequency dielectric measurements to follow certain aspects of the stress response of different species on a fine timescale without plant injury. The approach can be combined with widely used plant physiological methods and could contribute to breeding crop genotypes with improved stress tolerance.

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Moderate soil drying can cause a strong decrease in the soil-root system conductance. The resulting impact on root water uptake depends on the spatial distribution of the altered conductance relatively to remaining soil water resources, which is largely unknown. Here, we analyzed the vertical distribution of conductance across root systems using a novel, noninvasive sensor technology on pot-grown faba bean and maize plants. Withholding water for 4 days strongly enhanced the vertical gradient in soil water potential. Therefore, roots in upper and deeper soil layers were affected differently: In drier, upper layers, root conductance decreased by 66%-72%, causing an amplification of the drop in leaf water potential. In wetter, deeper layers, root conductance increased in maize but not in faba bean. The consequently facilitated deep-water uptake in maize contributed up to 21% of total water uptake at the end of the measurement. Analysis of root length distributions with MRI indicated that the locally increased conductance was mainly caused by an increased intrinsic conductivity and not by additional root growth. Our findings show that plants can partly compensate for a reduced root conductance in upper, drier soil layers by locally increasing root conductivity in wetter layers, thereby improving deep-water uptake.

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Mechanistic hypotheses to explain mycorrhizal enhancement of root hydraulic conductivity (Lp ) suggest that phosphorus (P) nutrition, plant growth substances and/or altered morphology may be responsible. Such ideas are based on work with VA (vesicular-arbuscular) mycorrhizas. Since VA mycorrhizas and ectomycorrhizas differ in many respects, they may alter host plant water uptake via different mechanisms. This paper examines LT in various ectomycorrhizal associations while considering factors which are important to the VA mycorrhizal effect on Lp . Douglas fir Pseudotsuga menziesii (Mirb.) Franco] seedlings inoculated with the ectomycorrhizal fungi Laccaria bicolor (Maire) Orton and Hebeloma crustuliniforme (Bull, ex St. Amans) Quel. and non-inoculated seedlings infected naturally with Thelephora were grown under three low levels of P fertilization (1, 10 and 100 fim P). Seedling morphology, tissue P levels, Lp and plant growth substance levels in xylem sap were measured after nine months growth. Increased tissue P and decreased root/shoot ratio correlated with increased Lp in each of the mycorrhizal treatments. When adjusted for the effect of these two factors, Lp of Laccaria and Hebeloma seedlings was still lower than the Thelephora seedlings. In a subsequent experiment, the Lp of seedlings with Hebeloma and Rhizopogon vinicolor Smith mycorrhizas was compared to the Lp of non-mycorrhizal seedlings (grown at 100 mM P) and no differences were found among treatments. The lack of an ectomycorrhizal effect on Lp is quite different from the enhancement of host Lp by VA mycorrhizas. Zeatin riboside concentrations of Thelephora- and Hebeloma-iniected seedlings were similar, yet higher than with Laccaria. There was no relationship between plant growth substances and Lp in ectomycorrhizal Douglas fir, despite lower zeatin riboside concentrations for Laccaria-inoculated plants.