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The neural circuits of reward processing and interval timing (including the perception and production of temporal intervals) are functionally intertwined, suggesting that it might be possible for momentary reward processing to influence subsequent timing behavior. Previous animal and human studies have mainly focused on the effect of reward on interval perception, whereas its impact on interval production is less clear. In this study, we examined whether feedback, as an example of performance-contingent reward, biases interval production. We recorded EEG from 20 participants while they engaged in a continuous drumming task with different realistic tempos (1728 trials per participant). Participants received color-coded feedback after each beat about whether they were correct (on time) or incorrect (early or late). Regression-based EEG analysis was used to unmix the rapid occurrence of a feedback response called the reward positivity (RewP), which is traditionally observed in more slow-paced tasks. Using linear mixed modeling, we found that RewP amplitude predicted timing behavior for the upcoming beat. This performance-biasing effect of the RewP was interpreted as reflecting the impact of fluctuations in reward-related anterior cingulate cortex activity on timing, and the necessity of continuous paradigms to make such observations was highlighted.

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The influence of effort expenditure on the subjective value in feedback involving material reward has been the focus of previous research. However, little is known about the impact of effort expenditure on subjective value evaluations when feedback involves reward that is produced in the context of social interaction (e.g. self-other agreement). Moreover, how effort expenditure influences confidence (second-order subjective value) in feedback evaluations remains unclear. Using electroencephalography, this study aimed to address these questions. Event-related potentials showed that, after exerting high effort, participants exhibited increased reward positivity difference in response to self-other (dis)agreement feedback. After exerting low effort, participants reported high confidence, and the self-other disagreement feedback evoked a larger P3a. Time-frequency analysis showed that the high-effort task evoked increased frontal midline theta power. In the low (vs. high)-effort task, the frontal midline delta power for self-other disagreement feedback was enhanced. These findings suggest that, at the early feedback evaluation stage, after exerting high effort, individuals exhibit an increased sensitivity of subjective value evaluation in response to self-other agreement feedback. At the later feedback evaluation stage, after completing the low-effort task, the self-other disagreement feedback violates the individuals'high confidence and leads to a metacognitive mismatch.

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The present research tested the effect of manipulated perceived control (over obtaining the outcomes) and effort on reward valuation using the event-related potential known as the Reward Positivity (RewP). This test was conducted in an attempt to integrate two research literatures with opposite findings: Effort justification occurs when high effort leads to high reward valuation, whereas effort discounting occurs when high effort leads to low reward valuation. Based on an examination of past methods used in these literatures, we predicted that perceived control and effort would interactively influence RewP. Consistent with the effort justification literature (cognitive dissonance theory), when individuals have high perceived control, high effort should lead to more reward valuation than low effort should. Consistent with the effort discounting literature, when individuals have low perceived control, low effort should lead to more reward valuation than high effort should. Results supported these interactive and integrative predictions.

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Grounded in self-determination theory (SDT), the purpose of this research is to investigate the influence of providing choices following competence frustration on one's intrinsic motivation in a follow-up task. Study 1 conducted a between-group EEG experiment with 50 participants and used a component of event-related potentials (ERPs) to represent intrinsic motivation. Study 2 was a behavioural experiment with 149 participants, adopting the self-report method to measure intrinsic motivation. The stimuli and procedure in Study 1 are identical to Study 2. All participants were asked to complete a high-difficult time-estimation (TE) task during sessions 1-2, and a moderate-difficult stopwatch (SW) task during session 3 (no choices in the control group vs. providing choices in the experimental group). In Study 1, we observed a smaller reward positivity (RewP) difference wave in the experimental (vs. control) group during session 3. In Study 2, participants' intrinsic motivation in the experimental (vs. control) group is significantly lower. The results suggest that providing choices impairs the competence-frustrated participants' intrinsic motivation in the follow-up task and hinders competence restoration. Thus, the current research contributes original neuroscientific and subjective evidences for the adverse influence of providing choices on the competence-frustrated individual's intrinsic motivation, and suggests important practical implications.

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The reinforcement learning (RL) theory of the reward positivity (RewP), an event-related potential (ERP) component that measures reward responsivity, suggests that the RewP should be largest when positive outcomes are unexpected and has been supported by work using appetitive outcomes (e.g., money). However, the RewP can also be elicited by the absence of aversive outcomes (e.g., shock). The limited work to-date that has manipulated expectancy while using aversive outcomes has not supported the predictions of RL theory. Nonetheless, this work has been difficult to reconcile with the appetitive literature because the RewP was not observed as a reward signal in these studies, which used passive tasks that did not involve participant choice. Here, we tested the predictions of the RL theory by manipulating expectancy in an active/choice-based threat-of-shock doors task that was previously found to elicit the RewP as a reward signal. Moreover, we used principal components analysis to isolate the RewP from overlapping ERP components. Eighty participants viewed pairs of doors surrounded by a red or green border; shock delivery was expected (80%) following red-bordered doors and unexpected (20%) following green-bordered doors. The RewP was observed as a reward signal (i.e., no shock > shock) that was not potentiated for unexpected feedback. In addition, the RewP was larger overall for unexpected (vs expected) feedback. Therefore, the RewP appears to reflect the additive (not interactive) effects of reward and expectancy, challenging the RL theory of the RewP, at least when reward is defined as the absence of an aversive outcome.

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Stress and neural responses to reward can interact to predict psychopathology, but the mechanisms of this interaction are unclear. One possibility is that the strength of neural responses to reward can affect the ability to maintain positive affect during stress. In this study, 105 participants completed a monetary reward task to elicit the reward positivity (RewP), an event-related potential sensitive to rewards. Subsequently, during a stressful period, participants reported on their affect nine times a day and on daily positive and negative events for 10 days. Even during heightened stress, experiencing more positive events was associated with increased positive affect. The RewP significantly moderated this association: Individuals with a larger RewP reported greater increases in positive affect when they experienced more positive events, relative to individuals with a smaller RewP. A blunted RewP might contribute to stress susceptibility by affecting how much individuals engage in positive emotion regulation during stress.

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Deficits in neural reward processing have been implicated in the etiology of depression and have been observed in high-risk individuals. However, depression is a heterogeneous disorder, and not all depressed individuals exhibit blunted neural reward response, suggesting the need to examine more specific depression phenotypes. Early-onset depression, a well-defined phenotype, has been associated with greater intergenerational transmission of depression and appears more closely linked to neural reward processing deficits. The present study examined whether a maternal history of early-onset depression was associated with neural reward response among mothers and their daughters. Mothers with and without a history of depression, as well as their biological, adolescent daughters (N = 109 dyads), completed a monetary reward guessing task while electroencephalogram was collected. Analyses focused on the Reward Positivity (RewP), an event-related potential following reward receipt. Adjusting for current depressive symptoms, maternal early-onset depression was associated with a blunted RewP in the mothers and a numerically smaller RewP in their never-depressed, adolescent daughters. Maternal adult-onset depression was not statistically associated with a blunted RewP in mothers or daughters. Thus, a blunted RewP appears to be a trait-like vulnerability marker for depression that emerges before depression onset and relates to more specific depression phenotypes (e.g., early-onset depression). These findings have implications for early identification of individuals at risk of depression and for developing more targeted interventions.

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Throughout our daily lives, the levels of effort we invest in various tasks are influenced by reward processing. The subjective expectation after expending effort is a primary factor affecting reward processing. However, recent studies indicate that individual differences in reward anticipation influence this subjective valuation. To better understand the relationship between effort expenditure and the subjective valuation of rewards, in this study, we perform an experiment in which we manipulate effort, control reward expectation implicitly, and measure the subjective valuation of rewards using event-related potentials (ERPs) and physical effort through behavioral measures (number of keystrokes). In the reward-task paradigm, 30 subjects performed effort and control trials, with the reward probability comparable across the effort and control conditions. We also examined the ERPs associated with the valuation of subjective rewards, including reward positivity (RewP) and set reward expectation controlled as the baseline. The results showed that the ERP amplitudes, the number of keystrokes, and explicit satisfaction ratings were all significantly greater in the effort condition than in the control condition. The participants maintained high levels of effort throughout the sessions associated with the experiment. The results of this study suggest that when reward expectations are controlled, effort expenditure evokes neural responses similar to reward feedback being given, which is linked with increased subjective satisfaction.

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Reward processing is vital for learning and survival, and can be indexed using the Reward Positivity (RewP), an event-related potential (ERP) component that is larger for rewards than losses. Prior work suggests that heightened motivation to obtain reward, as well as greater reward value, is associated with an enhanced RewP. However, the extent to which internal and external factors modulate neural responses to rewards, and whether such neural responses motivate reward-seeking behavior, remains unclear. The present study investigated whether the degree to which a reward is salient to an individual's current motivational state modulates the RewP, and whether the RewP predicts motivated behaviors, in a sample of 133 women. To elicit the RewP, participants completed a forced-choice food reward guessing task. Data were also collected on food-related behaviors (i.e., type of food chosen, consumption of the food reward) and motivational salience factors (i.e., self-reported hunger, time since last meal, and subjective "liking" of food reward). Results showed that hungrier participants displayed an enhanced RewP compared to less hungry individuals. Further, self-reported snack liking interacted with RewP magnitude to predict behavior, such that when participants reported low levels of snack liking, those with a smaller RewP were more likely to consume their snacks than those with a larger RewP. Our data suggest that food-related motivational state may increase neural sensitivity to food reward in young women, and that neural markers of reward sensitivity might interact with subjective reward liking to predict real-world eating behavior.

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Event-related brain potentials (ERPs) represent direct measures of neural activity that are leveraged to understand cognitive, affective, sensory, and motor processes. Every ERP researcher encounters the obstacle of determining whether measurements are precise or psychometrically reliable enough for an intended purpose. In this primer, we review three types of measurements metrics: data quality, group-level internal consistency, and subject-level internal consistency. Data quality estimates characterize the precision of ERP scores but provide no inherent information about whether scores are precise enough for examining individual differences. Group-level internal consistency characterizes the ratio of between-person differences to the precision of those scores, and provides a single internal consistency estimate for an entire group of participants that risks masking low internal consistency for some individuals. Subject-level internal consistency considers the precision of an ERP score for a person relative to between-person differences for a group, and an estimate is yielded for each individual. We apply each metric to published error-related negativity (ERN) and reward positivity (RewP) data and demonstrate how failing to consider data quality and internal consistency can undermine statistical inferences. We conclude with general comments on how these estimates may be used to improve measurement quality and methodological transparency. Subject-level internal consistency computation is implemented within the ERP Reliability Analysis (ERA) Toolbox.

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Reinforcement learning capitalizes on prediction errors (PEs), representing the deviation of received outcomes from expected outcomes. Mediofrontal event-related potentials (ERPs), in particular the feedback-related negativity (FRN)/reward positivity (RewP), are related to PE signaling, but there is disagreement as to whether the FRN/RewP encode signed or unsigned PEs. PE encoding can potentially be dissected by time-frequency analysis, as frontal theta [4-8 Hz] might represent poor outcomes, while central delta [1-3 Hz] might instead represent rewarding outcomes. However, cortical PE signaling in negative reinforcement is still poorly understood, and the role of cortical PE representations in behavioral reinforcement learning following negative reinforcement is relatively unexplored. We recorded EEG while participants completed a task with matched positive and negative reinforcement outcome modalities, with parametrically manipulated single-trial outcomes producing positive and negative PEs. We first demonstrated that PEs systematically influence future behavior in both positive and negative reinforcement conditions. In negative reinforcement conditions, mediofrontal ERPs positively signaled unsigned PEs in a time window encompassing the P2 potential, and negatively signaled signed PEs for a time window encompassing the FRN/RewP and frontal P3 (an "aversion positivity"). Central delta power increased parametrically with increasingly aversive outcomes, contributing to the "aversion positivity". Finally, negative reinforcement ERPs correlated with RTs on the following trial, suggesting cortical PEs guide behavioral adaptations. Positive reinforcement PEs did not influence ERP or time-frequency activity, despite significant behavioral effects. These results demonstrate that mediofrontal PE signals are a mechanism underlying negative reinforcement learning, and that delta power increases for aversive outcomes might contribute to the "aversion positivity."

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Affect dynamics reflect individual differences in how emotional information is processed, and may provide insights into how depressive episodes develop. To extend prior studies that examined affect dynamics in currently depressed individuals, the present study tested in 68 non-depressed young adults whether three well-established risk factors for major depressive disorder (MDD) - (a) past episodes of MDD, (b) family history of MDD, and (c) reduced neurophysiological responses to reward - predicted mean levels, instability, or inertia (i.e., inflexibility) of positive affect (PA) and/or negative affect (NA). Momentary PA and NA were assessed up to 6 times per day for 14 days (mean number of surveys completed = 45.89). MDD history and family history of MDD were assessed via semi-structured interview, and neurophysiological responses to reward were indexed using the Reward Positivity, an event-related potential related to depression. After adjusting for current depressive symptoms, results indicated that (a) past episodes of MDD predicted higher mean levels of NA, (b) family history of MDD predicted greater PA inertia, and (c) blunted reactivity to reward predicted greater NA inertia. Collectively, these results suggest that elevated mean levels of NA and inflexibility of PA and NA may be potential mechanisms that confer risk for depression.

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It is a commonplace that some people may adopt a controlling style, which brings about autonomy frustration to others. Existing studies on autonomy frustration mainly examined its effect in the primary thwarting context, ignoring its potential spillover to subsequent activities. In this study, we examined whether prior autonomy frustration would have a sustaining negative impact on one's motivation in another autonomy-supportive activity that follows. In this electrophysiological study, participants worked on two irrelevant tasks organized by two different experimenters. We adopted a between-group design and manipulated participants' autonomy frustration by providing varied audio instructions during Session 1. In Session 2, all participants were instructed to complete a moderately difficult task that is autonomy-supportive instead, and we observed a less pronounced reward positivity (RewP) difference wave and a smaller P300 in the autonomy-frustration group compared with the control group. These findings suggested that the negative influence of autonomy frustration is longstanding and that it can undermine one's motivation and attention in a following activity that is autonomy-supportive itself. Thus, our findings provided original neutral evidence for the adverse intertemporal effect of autonomy frustration, and suggested important practical implications.

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Performance-monitoring event-related brain potentials (ERPs), such as the error-related negativity (ERN) and reward positivity (RewP), are advocated as biomarkers of depression symptoms and risk. However, a recent meta-analysis indicated effect size heterogeneity in the ERN and RewP literatures. Hence, advocating these ERPs as biomarkers of depression might be premature or possibly misguided due to the selective reporting of significant analyses on the part of researchers (e.g., p-hacking or omission of non-significant findings). The present study quantified the degree of selective reporting and the evidential value for a true relationship between depression and ERN and RewP using a p-curve analysis. We predicted that the ERN and RewP literatures would fail to show evidential value for a relationship between each ERP and depression. Contrary to expectations, both literatures showed evidential value, albeit weak. The statistical power of the included ERN studies was between 20% and 25%, and the statistical power of the RewP was around 27%. Taken together, these findings provide support for a relationship between these ERPs and depression, which strengthens claims that these ERPs represent candidate biomarkers of depression symptoms and risk. In light of the evidence for these relationships being weak, some recommendations moving forward include conducting a priori power analyses, increasing sample sizes to improve statistical power, assessing the internal consistency of ERP scores, and carefully planning statistical approaches to maximize power.

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The present study aimed to investigate whether coincidence of opinion affects the evaluative processing of outcomes in group decision-making under authority rule. For this purpose, we examined the effects of the opinion coincidence on feedback-related negativity (FRN), an event-related brain potential (ERP) reflecting the evaluative processing of outcomes. Six three-person groups performed a group decision-making task in which one member acting as a leader (leader blocks) made a group decision to choose one of two cards after he/she observed opinions of the other members acting as followers (follower blocks), and monetary gain or loss was contingent on the group decision. To examine the effect of the opinion coincidence, each trial of each individual was classified into one of three trial types: unanimous, majority, or minority trials. As a result, the amplitude of FRN was smaller for unanimous trials than for majority trials in the leader blocks. In addition, the amplitude of FRN was larger for majority trials compared to minority trials in the follower blocks. These results suggest that the coincidence of opinion in group decision-making affects the evaluative processing of outcomes, and this occurs even when roles and responsibilities over outcomes is explicitly clarified under the authority rule.

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Reward-related event-related potentials (ERPs) are often used to index individual differences that signal the presence or predict the onset of psychopathology. However, relatively little research has explored the psychometric properties of reward-related ERPs. Without understanding their psychometric properties, the value of using ERPs as biomarkers for psychopathology is limited. The present study, therefore, sought to establish the internal consistency reliability and convergent validity of the reward positivity (RewP) and feedback negativity (FN) elicited by two types of incentives commonly used in individual differences research - monetary and social rewards. A large, developmentally-diverse sample completed a forced-choice guessing task in which they won or lost money, as well as a social interaction task in which they received acceptance and rejection feedback. Data were analyzed at both Cz and at a frontocentral region of interest (ROI) using techniques derived from classical test theory and generalizability theory. Results demonstrated good to excellent internal consistency of the RewP and FN within 20 trials in both tasks, in addition to convergent validity between the two tasks. Results from a regression-based approach to isolating activity specific to a single response demonstrated acceptable to good internal consistency within 20 trials in both tasks, while a subtraction-based approach (∆RewP) did not achieve acceptable internal consistency in either task. Internal consistency was not moderated by age and did not differ between Cz and the frontocentral ROI; however, the magnitudes of the RewP and FN were significantly associated with age at Cz but not at the ROI. This work replicates previous studies demonstrating good psychometric properties of the monetary RewP/FN and provides novel information about the psychometric properties of the social RewP/FN. These data support the use of reward-related ERPs elicited by multiple reward types in studies of biomarkers of psychopathology.

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Reward processing is often considered to be a monolithic construct, with different incentive types eliciting equivalent neural and behavioral responses. The majority of the literature on reward processing has used monetary incentives to elicit reward-related activity, yet social incentives may be particularly important due to their powerful ability to shape behavior. Findings from studies comparing social and monetary rewards have identified both overlapping and distinct responses. In order to explore whether reward processing is domain general or category specific (i.e., the same or different across reward types), the present study recorded ERPs from early adolescents (ages 12-13) and emerging adults (ages 18-25) while they completed social and monetary reward tasks. Temporospatial principal components analysis revealed morphologically similar reward positivities (RewPs) in the social and monetary reward tasks in each age group. In early adolescents, no significant difference was found between the magnitude of the RewP to social and monetary rewards. In emerging adults, however, the RewP to monetary rewards was significantly larger than the RewP to social rewards. Additionally, responses to feedback between the two tasks were not significantly correlated in either age group. These results suggest that both domain-general and category-specific processes underlie neural responses to rewards and that the relative incentive value of different types of rewards may change across development. Findings from this study have important implications for understanding the role that neural response to rewards plays in the development of psychopathology during adolescence.

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The present study aimed to investigate whether or not the evaluative processing of action feedback can be modulated by temporal prediction. For this purpose, we examined the effects of the predictability of the timing of action feedback on an ERP effect that indexed the evaluative processing of action feedback, that is, an ERP effect that has been interpreted as a feedback-related negativity (FRN) elicited by "bad" action feedback or a reward positivity (RewP) elicited by "good" action feedback. In two types of experimental blocks, the participants performed a gambling task in which they chose one of two cards and received an action feedback that indicated monetary gain or loss. In fixed blocks, the time interval between the participant's choice and the onset of the action feedback was fixed at 0, 500, or 1,000 ms in separate blocks; thus, the timing of action feedback was predictable. In mixed blocks, the time interval was randomly chosen from the same three intervals with equal probability; thus, the timing was less predictable. The results showed that the FRN/RewP was smaller in mixed than fixed blocks for the 0-ms interval trial, whereas there was no difference between the two block types for the 500-ms and 1,000-ms interval trials. Interestingly, the smaller FRN/RewP was due to the modulation of gain ERPs rather than loss ERPs. These results suggest that temporal prediction can modulate the evaluative processing of action feedback, and particularly good feedback, such as that which indicates monetary gain.

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