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Direct introduction of cryopreserved embryonic gonadal germ cells (GGC) into a sterile chicken surrogate host to reconstitute a chicken breed has been demonstrated as a feasible approach for preserving and utilizing chicken genetic resources. This method is highly efficient using male gonads; however, a large number of frozen female embryonic gonads is needed to provide sufficient purified GGC for the generation of fertile surrogate female hosts. Applying this method to indigenous chicken breeds and other bird species is difficult due to small flock numbers and poor egg production in each egg laying cycle. Propagating germ cells from the frozen gonadal tissues may be a solution for the biobanking of these birds. Here, we describe a simplified method for culture of GGC from frozen embryonic 9.5 d gonads. At this developmental stage, the germ cells are autonomously shed into medium, yielding hundreds to thousands of mitosis-competent germ cells. The resulting cultures of GGC have over 90% purity, uniformly express SSEA-1 and DAZL antigens and can re-colonize recipient's gonads. The GGC recovery rate from frozen gonads are 42% to 100%, depending on length of cryopreservation and the breed or line of chickens. Entire chicken embryos can also be directly cryopreserved for later gonadal isolation and culture. This storage method is a supplementary approach to safeguard local indigenous chicken breeds bearing valuable genetic traits and should be applicable to the biobanking of many bird species.

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Objective: Recently, the application in the field of germplasm resource conservation has become an important application of primordial germ cells (PGCs). However, due to the lack of deep understanding of the biological characteristics of PGCs at different time points, there is no systematic scheme for the selection of PGCs at which time points in practical application, which affects the practical application effect of PGCs. This study aims to clarify the differences in PGCs during development. Methods: Here, migration experiment, EdU proliferation assay and cell apoptosis assay were conducted to compare the differences in the migration ability, the proliferation ability and the recovery efficiency among female and male PGCs at E3.5, E4.5 and E5.5, which were explained by the following transcriptome sequencing analysis. Results: We found that there were larger differences between female and male PGCs at different embryonic ages, while smaller differences between female and male PGCs at the same embryonic age. Further comparison showed that the cell migration ability of female and male PGCs decreased gradually during development, so female and male PGCs at E3.5 are more suitable for in vitro allotransplantation. At the same time, the proliferation ability of PGCs gradually decreased during development, and cell adhesion and extracellular matrix communication were weakened, indicating that female and male PGCs of E3.5 are more suitable for in vitro long-term culture cell line establishment. Interestingly, female and male PGCs at E5.5 showed strong DNA damage repair ability, thus more suitable for in vitro long-term cryopreservation. Conclusion: This study provides a theoretical basis for systematically selecting PGCs at suitable developmental time points as cell materials for efficient utilization by analyzing the characteristics of female and male PGCs at different developmental time points based on transcriptome.

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In chicken, primordial germ cells (PGC) are crucial for the preservation and manipulation of genetic resources in poultry production. The HiS and FAcs culture systems are two important methods for the in vitro cultivation of chicken PGCs. The purpose of this study was to compare and analyze the two cultivation systems for PGCs (His and FAcs culture systems) to assess their efficacy and applicability in supporting PGC growth, maintaining PGC characteristics, and lineage transmission ability. The study found that both HiS and FAcs culture systems could maintain the basic biological characteristics of chicken PGCs, including the simultaneous expression of pluripotency and reproductive marker genes, as well as the presence of abundant glycogen granules. Subsequently, we identified 2,145 differentially expressed genes (DEG) through RNA sequencing. GO and KEGG analysis revealed a large number of DEGs enriched in the cell adhesion and calcium ion binding pathways, and the analysis found that these genes maintained a higher level in HiS-PGCs. Further personalized analysis found that the regulatory genes for maintaining PGC pluripotency were highly expressed in HiS-PGCs, while germ cell-related genes showed similar expression in both systems. Additionally, through RNA sequencing data and cell proliferation ability, it was found that PGCs in the FAcs system had a higher proliferation rate and a faster cell cycle. Finally, it was discovered that the expression of cell migration-related genes was maintained at a higher level in HiS-PGCs, but the migration efficiency of HiS-PGCs did not show a significant difference compared to FAcs-PGCs. These results suggest that both HiS and FAcs culture systems can maintain the proliferation and basic characteristics of chicken PGCs, but differences exist in cell proliferation, pluripotency regulation, and cell adhesion. These findings provide new information for optimizing PGC cultivation systems and are important for the preservation and genetic improvement of chicken PGCs.

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As an important post-translational modification, ubiquitination plays an important role in regulating protein homeostasis in eukaryotic cells. In our previous studies, both the transcriptome and proteome suggested that ubiquitination is involved in the formation of chicken primordial germ cells (PGCs). Here, affinity enrichment combined with liquid chromatography (LC)-tandem mass spectrometry (MS/MS) was used to analyze the ubiquitome during the differentiation from embryonic stem cells (ESCs) to PGCs, and we identify that 724 lysine ubiquitinated sites were up-regulated in 558 proteins and 138 lysine ubiquitinated sites were down-regulated in 109 proteins. Furthermore, GO and KEGG enrichment analysis showed that ubiquitination regulates key proteins to participate in the progression of key events related to PGC formation and the transduction of key signals such as Wnt, MAPK and Insulin signals, followed by the detailed explanation of the specific regulatory mechanism of ubiquitination through the combined proteome and ubiquitome analysis. Moreover, both the activation and inhibition of neddylation were detrimental to the maintenance of the biological characteristics of PGCs, which also verified the importance of ubiquitination. In conclusion, this study provides a global view of the ubiquitome during the formation of PGCs by label-free quantitative ubiquitomics, which lays a theoretical foundation for the formation mechanism and specific application of chicken PGCs.

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Avian primordial germ cells (PGCs) are important culture cells for the production of transgenic chickens and preservation of the genetic resources of endangered species; however, culturing these cells in vitro proves challenging. Although the proliferation of chicken PGCs is dependent on insulin, the underlying molecular mechanisms remain unclear. In the present study, we explored the expression of the PI3K/AKT signaling pathway in PGCs, investigated its effects on PGC self-renewal and biological properties, and identified the underlying mechanisms. Our findings indicated that although supplementation with the PI3K/AKT activator IGF-1 failed to promote proliferation under the assessed culture conditions, the PI3K/AKT inhibitor LY294002 resulted in retarded cell proliferation and reduced expression of germ cell-related markers. We further demonstrated that inhibition of PI3K/AKT regulates the cell cycle and promotes apoptosis in PGCs by activating the expression of BAX and inhibiting that of Bcl-2. These findings indicated that the PI3K/AKT pathway is required for cell renewal, apoptosis, and maintenance of the reproductive potential in chicken PGCs. This study aimed to provide a theoretical basis for the optimization and improvement of a culture system for chicken PGCs and provide insights into the self-renewal of vertebrate PGCs as well as potential evolutionary changes in this unique cell population.

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The determination of sex in mammals is established and controlled by various complex mechanisms. In contrast, sex control in poultry remains an unresolved issue. In this study, RNA-sequencing was conducted for male gonads and ovarian tissues in chicken embryos of up to 18.5 days to identify metabolic factors influencing male and female sex differentiation, as well as gonadal development. Our results reveal that PKM2, a critical glycolysis-related protein, plays a significant role in chicken sex differentiation via PPARG, a crucial hormone gene. We propose that our discoveries bolster the notion that glycolysis and oxidative phosphorylation function as antecedent contributors to sexual phenotypic development and preservation.

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As an RNA binding protein (RBP), DDX5 is widely involved in the regulation of various biological activities. While recent studies have confirmed that DDX5 can act as a transcriptional cofactor that is involved in the formation of gametes, few studies have investigated whether DDX5 can be used as a transcription factor to regulate the formation of primordial germ cells (PGCs). In this study, we found that DDX5 was significantly up-regulated during chicken PGC formation. Under different PGC induction models, the overexpression of DDX5 not only up-regulates PGC markers but also significantly improves the formation efficiency of primordial germ cell-like cells (PGCLC). Conversely, the inhibition of DDX5 expression can significantly inhibit both the expression of PGC markers and PGCLC formation efficiency. The effect of DDX5 on PGC formation in vivo was consistent with that seen in vitro. Interestingly, DDX5 not only participates in the formation of PGCs but also positively regulates their migration and proliferation. In the process of studying the mechanism by which DDX5 regulates PGC formation, we found that DDX5 acts as a transcription factor to bind to the promoter region of BMP4-a key gene for PGC formation-and activates the expression of BMP4. In summary, we confirm that DDX5 can act as a positive transcription factor to regulate the formation of PGCs in chickens. The obtained results not only enhance our understanding of the way in which DDX5 regulates the development of germ cells but also provide a new target for systematically optimizing the culture and induction system of PGCs in chickens in vitro.

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The specification of germ cells in zebrafish mostly relies on an inherited mechanism by which localized maternal determinants, called germ plasm, confer germline fate in the early embryo. Extensive studies have partially allowed the identification of key regulators governing germ plasm formation and subsequent germ cell development. RNA-binding proteins, acting in concert with other germ plasm components, play essential roles in the organization of the germ plasm and the specification, migration, maintenance, and differentiation of primordial germ cells. The loss of their functions impairs germ cell formation and causes sterility or sexual conversion. Evidence is emerging that they instruct germline development through differential regulation of mRNA fates in somatic and germ cells. However, the challenge remains to decipher the complex interplay of maternal germ plasm components in germ plasm compartmentalization and germ cell specification. Because failure to control the developmental outcome of germ cells disrupts the formation of gametes, it is important to gain a complete picture of regulatory mechanisms operating in the germ cell lineage. This review sheds light on the contributions of RNA-binding proteins to germ cell development in zebrafish and highlights intriguing questions that remain open for future investigation.

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Primordial germ cells (PGCs) are the precursors of sperms and oocytes. Proper development of PGCs is crucial for the survival of the species. In many organisms, factors responsible for PGC development are synthesized during early oogenesis and assembled into the germ plasm. During early embryonic development, germ plasm is inherited by a few cells, leading to the formation of PGCs. While germline development has been extensively studied, how components of the germ plasm regulate PGC development is not fully understood. Here, we report that Dzip1 is dynamically expressed in vertebrate germline and is a novel component of the germ plasm in Xenopus and zebrafish. Knockdown of Dzip1 impairs PGC development in Xenopus embryos. At the molecular level, Dzip1 physically interacts with Dazl, an evolutionarily conserved RNA-binding protein that plays a multifaced role during germline development. We further showed that the sequence between amino acid residues 282 and 550 of Dzip1 is responsible for binding to Dazl. Disruption of the binding between Dzip1 and Dazl leads to defective PGC development. Taken together, our results presented here demonstrate that Dzip1 is dynamically expressed in the vertebrate germline and plays a novel function during Xenopus PGC development.

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Mammalian spermatogenesis, probably the most complex of all cellular developmental processes, is an ideal model both for studying the specific mechanism of gametogenesis and for understanding the basic rules governing all developmental processes, as it entails both cell type-specific and housekeeping molecular processes. Spermatogenesis can be viewed as a mission with many tasks to accomplish, and its success is genetically programmed and ensured by the collaboration of a large number of genes. Here, I present an overview of mammalian spermatogenesis and the mechanisms underlying each step in the process, covering the cellular and molecular activities that occur at each developmental stage and emphasizing their gene regulation in light of recent studies.

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In mammals, gonadal somatic cell lineage differentiation determines the development of the bipotential gonad into either the ovary or testis. Sertoli cells, the only somatic cells in the spermatogenic tubules, support spermatogenesis during gonadal development. During embryonic Sertoli cell lineage differentiation, relevant genes, including WT1, GATA4, SRY, SOX9, AMH, PTGDS, SF1, and DMRT1, are expressed at specific times and in specific locations to ensure the correct differentiation of the embryo toward the male phenotype. The dysregulated development of Sertoli cells leads to gonadal malformations and male fertility disorders. Nevertheless, the molecular pathways underlying the embryonic origin of Sertoli cells remain elusive. By reviewing recent advances in research on embryonic Sertoli cell genesis and its key regulators, this review provides novel insights into sex determination in male mammals as well as the molecular mechanisms underlying the genealogical differentiation of Sertoli cells in the male reproductive ridge.

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Helicase POLQ-like (HELQ) is a DNA helicase essential for the maintenance of genome stability. A recent study identified two HELQ missense mutations in some cases of infertile men. However, the functions of HELQ in the process of germline specification are not well known and whether its function is conserved between mouse and human remains unclear. Here, we revealed that Helq knockout (Helq-/-) could significantly reduce the efficiency of mouse primordial germ cell-like cell (PGCLC) induction. In addition, Helq-/- embryonic bodies exhibited a severe apoptotic phenotype on day 6 of mouse PGCLC induction. p53 inhibitor treatment could partially rescue the generation of mouse PGCLCs from Helq mutant mouse embryonic stem cells. Finally, the genetic ablation of HELQ could also significantly impede the induction of human PGCLCs. Collectively, our study sheds light on the involvement of HELQ in the induction of both mouse and human PGCLCs, providing new insights into the mechanisms underlying germline differentiation and the genetic studies of human fertility.

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BACKGROUND: Genome-wide DNA demethylation occurs in mammalian primordial germ cells (PGCs) as part of the epigenetic reprogramming important for gametogenesis and resetting the epigenetic information for totipotency. Dppa3 (also known as Stella or Pgc7) is highly expressed in mouse PGCs and oocytes and encodes a factor essential for female fertility. It prevents excessive DNA methylation in oocytes and ensures proper gene expression in preimplantation embryos: however, its role in PGCs is largely unexplored. In the present study, we investigated whether or not DPPA3 has an impact on CG methylation/demethylation in mouse PGCs. RESULTS: We show that DPPA3 plays a role in genome-wide demethylation in PGCs even before sex differentiation. Dppa3 knockout female PGCs show aberrant hypermethylation, most predominantly at H3K9me3-marked retrotransposons, which persists up to the fully-grown oocyte stage. DPPA3 works downstream of PRDM14, a master regulator of epigenetic reprogramming in embryonic stem cells and PGCs, and independently of TET1, an enzyme that hydroxylates 5-methylcytosine. CONCLUSIONS: The results suggest that DPPA3 facilitates DNA demethylation through a replication-coupled passive mechanism in PGCs. Our study identifies DPPA3 as a novel epigenetic reprogramming factor in mouse PGCs.

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Ten-eleven translocation (TET) enzymes iteratively oxidize 5-methylcytosine (5mC) to generate 5-hydroxymethylcytosine (5hmC), 5-formylcytosine, and 5-carboxylcytosine to facilitate active genome demethylation. Whether these bases are required to promote replication-coupled dilution or activate base excision repair during mammalian germline reprogramming remains unresolved due to the inability to decouple TET activities. Here, we generated two mouse lines expressing catalytically inactive TET1 (Tet1-HxD) and TET1 that stalls oxidation at 5hmC (Tet1-V). Tet1 knockout and catalytic mutant primordial germ cells (PGCs) fail to erase methylation at select imprinting control regions and promoters of meiosis-associated genes, validating the requirement for the iterative oxidation of 5mC for complete germline reprogramming. TET1V and TET1HxD rescue most hypermethylation of Tet1-/- sperm, suggesting the role of TET1 beyond its oxidative capability. We additionally identify a broader class of hypermethylated regions in Tet1 mutant mouse sperm that depend on TET oxidation for reprogramming. Our study demonstrates the link between TET1-mediated germline reprogramming and sperm methylome patterning.

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BACKGROUND: In mammals, primordial germ cells (PGCs), the embryonic precursors of the germline, arise from embryonic or extra-embryonic cells upon induction by the surrounding tissues during gastrulation, according to mechanisms which are elucidated in mice but remain controversial in primates. They undergo genome-wide epigenetic reprogramming, consisting of extensive DNA demethylation and histone post-translational modification (PTM) changes, toward a basal, euchromatinized state. In contrast, chicken PGCs are specified by preformation before gastrulation based on maternally-inherited factors. They can be isolated from the bloodstream during their migration to the genital ridges. Our prior research highlighted differences in the global epigenetic profile of cultured chicken PGCs compared with chicken somatic cells and mammalian PGCs. This study investigates the acquisition and evolution of this profile during development. RESULTS: Quantitative analysis of global DNA methylation and histone PTMs, including their distribution, during key stages of chicken early development revealed divergent PGC epigenetic changes compared with mammals. Unlike mammalian PGCs, chicken PGCs do not undergo genome-wide DNA demethylation or exhibit a decrease in histone H3 lysine 9 dimethylation. However, chicken PGCs show 5­hydroxymethylcytosine loss, macroH2A redistribution, and chromatin decompaction, mirroring mammalian processes. Chicken PGCs initiate their epigenetic signature during migration, progressively accumulating high global levels of H3K9me3, with preferential enrichment in inactive genome regions. Despite apparent global chromatin decompaction, abundant heterochromatin marks, including repressive histone PTMs, HP1 variants, and DNA methylation, persists in chicken PGCs, contrasting with mammalian PGCs. CONCLUSIONS: Chicken PGCs' epigenetic signature does not align with the basal chromatin state observed in mammals, suggesting a departure from extensive epigenetic reprogramming. Despite disparities in early PGC development, the persistence of several epigenetic features shared with mammals implies their involvement in chromatin-regulated germ cell properties, with the distinctive elevation of chicken-specific H3K9me3 potentially participating in these processes.

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In vitro induction of primordial germ cell like-cells (PGCLCs) from pluripotent stem cells (PSCs) is a robust method that will contribute to understanding the fundamentals of cell fate decisions, animal breeding, and future reproductive medicine. Here, we introduce this system established in the rat model. We describe a stepwise protocol to induce epiblast-like cells and subsequent PGCLCs by forming spherical aggregates from rat PSCs. We also describe a protocol to mature these PGCLCs from specified/migratory to the gonadal stage by aggregation with female gonadal somatic cells.

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Human primordial germ cell (PGC) development initiates about 2 weeks after fertilization during embryogenesis. Unique molecular events follow, including epigenetic resetting, to establish functional gametes (egg and sperm). Due to the inaccessibility of human embryos, it is essential to have an amenable experimental platform to investigate the mechanisms and potential dysfunctions of the events. We previously established a PGC-like cell (PGCLC) differentiation method using human pluripotent stem cells (PSCs) via induction of precursor cells followed by stimulation with a cytokine cocktail including BMP. We also revealed that the expression of PGC specifiers, SOX17 and PRDM1, can robustly induce PGCLCs from PSCs without the cytokines. The balance of SOX17 and PRDM1 is critical for germ cell fate since the two factors also regulate endoderm differentiation. Here we describe a detailed procedure for PGCLC differentiation with the balanced induction of SOX17 and PRDM1. The protocol can be used for PGC induction in other mammalian species exhibiting PGCs with SOX17 expression. Together, these studies will advance the understanding of germ cell biology and its applications in reproductive technology and medicine.

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Primordial germ cells (PGCs) are the earliest precursors of the gametes. During normal development, PGCs only give rise to oocytes or spermatozoa. However, PGCs can acquire pluripotency in vitro by forming embryonic germ (EG) cells and in vivo during teratocarcinogenesis. Classic embryological experiments directly assessed the potency of PGCs by injection into the pre-implantation embryo. As no contribution to embryos or adult mice was observed, PGCs have been described as unipotent. Here, we demonstrate that PGCs injected into 8-cell embryos can initially survive, divide, and contribute to the developing inner cell mass. Apoptosis-deficient PGCs exhibit improved survival in isolated epiblasts and can form naive pluripotent embryonic stem cell lines. However, contribution to the post-implantation embryo is limited, with no functional incorporation observed. In contrast, PGC-like cells show an extensive contribution to mid-gestation chimeras. We thus propose that PGC formation in vivo establishes a latent form of pluripotency that restricts chimera contribution.

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The microfluidic amniotic sac embryoid (µPASE) is a human pluripotent stem cell (hPSC)-derived multicellular human embryo-like structure with molecular and morphological features resembling the progressive development of the early post-implantation human embryonic sac. The microfluidic device is specifically designed to control the formation of hPSC clusters and expose the clusters to different morphogen environments, allowing the development of µPASEs in a highly controllable, reproducible, and scalable fashion. The µPASE model displays human embryonic developmental landmarks such as lumenogenesis of the epiblast, amniotic cavity formation, and the specification of primordial germ cells and gastrulating cells (or mesendoderm cells). Here, we provide detailed instructions needed to reproduce µPASEs, including the immunofluorescence staining and cell retrieval protocols for characterizing µPASEs obtained under different experimental conditions.

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National animal gene banks that are responsible for conserving livestock, poultry, and aquatic genetic resources need to be capable of utilizing a broad array of cryotechnologies coupled with assisted reproductive technologies to reconstitute either specific animals or populations/breeds as needed. This capability is predicated upon having sufficient genetic diversity (usually encapsulated by number of animals in the collection), units of germplasm or tissues, and the ability to reconstitute animals. While the Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FAO 2012, 2023) developed a set of guidelines for gene banks on these matters, those guidelines do not consider applications and utilization of newer technologies (e.g., primordial germ cells, cloning from somatic cells, embryo transfer, IVF, sex-sorted semen), which can radically change how gene banks collect, store, and utilize genetic resources. This paper reviews the current status of using newer technologies, explores how gene banks might make such technologies part of their routine operations, and illustrates how combining newer assisted reproductive technologies with older approaches enables populations to be reconstituted more efficiently.