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The mammary gland is a highly dynamic organ which undergoes periods of expansion, differentiation and cell death in each reproductive cycle. Partly because of the dynamic nature of the gland, mammary epithelial cells (MECs) are extraordinarily heterogeneous. Single cell RNA-seq (scRNA-seq) analyses have contributed to understand the cellular and transcriptional heterogeneity of this complex tissue. Here, we integrate scRNA-seq data from three foundational reports that have explored the mammary gland cell populations throughout development at single-cell level using 10× Chromium Drop-Seq. We center our analysis on post-natal development of the mammary gland, from puberty to post-involution. The new integrated study corresponds to RNA sequences from 53,686 individual cells, which greatly outnumbers the three initial data sets. The large volume of information provides new insights, as a better resolution of the previously detected Procr+ stem-like cell subpopulation or the identification of a novel group of MECs expressing immune-like markers. Moreover, here we present new pseudo-temporal trajectories of MEC populations at two resolution levels, that is either considering all mammary cell subtypes or focusing specifically on the luminal lineages. Interestingly, the luminal-restricted analysis reveals distinct expression patterns of various genes that encode milk proteins, suggesting specific and non-redundant roles for each of them. In summary, our data show that the application of bioinformatic tools to integrate multiple scRNA-seq data-sets helps to describe and interpret the high level of plasticity involved in gene expression regulation throughout mammary gland post-natal development.

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High-salt (HS) diets have recently been linked to oxidative stress in the brain, a fact that may be a precursor to behavioral changes, such as those involving anxiety-like behavior. However, to the best of our knowledge, no study has evaluated the amygdala redox status after consuming a HS diet in the pre- or postweaning periods. This study aimed to evaluate the amygdala redox status and anxiety-like behaviors in adulthood, after inclusion of HS diet in two periods: preconception, gestation, and lactation (preweaning); and only after weaning (postweaning). Initially, 18 females and 9 male Wistar rats received a standard (n = 9 females and 4 males) or a HS diet (n = 9 females and 5 males) for 120 days. After mating, females continued to receive the aforementioned diets during gestation and lactation. Weaning occurred at 21-day-old Wistar rats and the male offspring were subdivided: control-control (C-C)-offspring of standard diet fed dams who received a standard diet after weaning (n = 9-11), control-HS (C-HS)-offspring of standard diet fed dams who received a HS diet after weaning (n = 9-11), HS-C-offspring of HS diet fed dams who received a standard diet after weaning (n = 9-11), and HS-HS-offspring of HS diet fed dams who received a HS diet after weaning (n = 9-11). At adulthood, the male offspring performed the elevated plus maze and open field tests. At 152-day-old Wistar rats, the offspring were euthanized and the amygdala was removed for redox state analysis. The HS-HS group showed higher locomotion and rearing frequency in the open field test. These results indicate that this group developed hyperactivity. The C-HS group had a higher ratio of entries and time spent in the open arms of the elevated plus maze test in addition to a higher head-dipping frequency. These results suggest less anxiety-like behaviors. In the analysis of the redox state, less activity of antioxidant enzymes and higher levels of the thiobarbituric acid reactive substances (TBARS) in the amygdala were shown in the amygdala of animals that received a high-salt diet regardless of the period (pre- or postweaning). In conclusion, the high-salt diet promoted hyperactivity when administered in the pre- and postweaning periods. In animals that received only in the postweaning period, the addition of salt induced a reduction in anxiety-like behaviors. Also, regardless of the period, salt provided amygdala oxidative stress, which may be linked to the observed behaviors.

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Objetivo: develar la vivencia de la Ley de Postnatal Parental en madres trabajadoras y sus hijos en dos ciudades del sur de Chile, 2018. Metodología: investigación cualitativa fenomenológica con referente filosófico en Schutz. Recolección por entrevista fenomenológica y análisis a través de la definición de metacategorías y categorías intermedias. El muestreo se define por saturación teórica y la recolección por medio de entrevista fenomenológica a fin de aprehender los objetos vividos. Esta se realiza en el lugar y horario acordado, previa firma de formulario de consentimiento informado, y se autoriza la grabación del discurso. Resultados: emergieron las metacategorías experiencia beneficiosa para díadas, beneficios para el lactante, sobrecarga materna y desprotección por déficit de información. Teniendo en cuenta las perspectivas de género imperantes, retornar al trabajo implica culpa y sobrecarga materna al conciliar ambos roles. Conclusiones: se perciben miedos a perder el trabajo y perjuicios por hacer uso del permiso parental. Se deben buscar estrategias que faciliten la entrega de información y valorar redes de apoyo maternas para facilitar la conciliación familiar.

Objetivo: apresentar a experiência da Lei do Pós-natal (Ley de Postnatal Parental) em mães trabalhadoras e seus filhos em duas cidades do sul do Chile, 2018. Metodologia: pesquisa fenomenológica qualitativa com referencial filosófico de Schutz; coleta por entrevista fenomenológica e análise por meio da definição de metacategorias e categorias intermediárias. A amostragem é definida por saturação teórica e a coleta por entrevista fenomenológica para a apreensão dos objetos vividos. A entrevista foi realizada em local e horário acordados após a assinatura do Termo de Consentimento Livre e Esclarecido, sendo autorizada a gravação do discurso. Resultados: surgiram metacategorias experiência benéfica para as díades, benefícios para o bebê, sobrecarga materna e falta de proteção por causa do deficit de informações. Devido às perspectivas predominantes de gênero, o retorno ao trabalho implica culpa e sobrecarga materna ao conciliar os dois papéis. Conclusões: o medo de perder trabalho e preconceitos por usar a licença-maternidade são percebidos. Estratégias que facilitam a entrega de informações e valorizam as redes de apoio materno devem ser buscadas para promover a reconciliação familiar.

Objective: To reveal the experience of the Parental Postnatal Law in working mothers and their children in two cities in southern Chile, 2018. Methodology: Phenomenological qualitative research with Schutz philosophical reference. Data was collected by phenomenological interview and analysis, defining a set of metacategories and intermediate categories. Sampling is defined by theoretical saturation and data collection carried out by phenomenological interview in order to apprehend the objects lived. Interviews were performed at the agreed place and time, after signing an informed consent form, and included an authorized recording of the speech. Results: The emerged metacategories correspond to beneficial experience for dyads, benefits for the infant, maternal overload, and deprotection due to information deficit. Considering the prevailing gender perspectives, returning to work implies guilt and maternal overload when reconciling both roles. Conclusion: Fears of losing the job and prejudices are perceived when making use of a parental leave. Strategies aimed at easing the delivery of information and valuing maternal support networks that smooth family reconciliation should be considered.

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AIMS: The aim of the present study was to clarify if in utero exposure to DEX would affect the development of different types of pancreatic endocrine cells during postnatal life. MAIN METHODS: We investigated morphological and transcriptional features of both pancreatic ß- and α-cell populations within the pancreatic islets during the early postnatal life of rats born to mothers treated with DEX (0.1 mg/kg) from day 14 to 19 of pregnancy. Untreated pregnant Wistar rats of the same age (12-week-old) were used as control (CTL). Pups were euthanized on the 1st, 3rd and 21st (PND1, PND3 and PND21, respectively) days of life, regardless of sex. Serum insulin and glucagon levels were also evaluated. KEY FINDINGS: Rats born to DEX-treated mothers exhibited increased pancreatic α-cell mass, circulating glucagon levels and Gcg, Pax6, MafB and Nkx2.2 expression. Rats born to DEX-treated mothers also presented a rise in serum insulin levels on the PND3 that was paralleled by reduced ß-cell mass. Such increase in serum insulin levels, instead, was associated with increased expression of genes associated to insulin secretion such as Gck and Slc2a2. SIGNIFICANCE: Altogether, the present data reveals yet unknown changes in endocrine pancreas during early postnatal life of rats exposed to DEX in utero. Such data may contribute to the understanding of the metabolic features of rats born to DEX-treated mothers.

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INTRODUCTION: Typical symptoms of primary Zika virus infection are not specific and share similarities with other arbovirus infections such as dengue fever and chikungunya. As acute infection can be asymptomatic in up to 73% of cases, infants with microcephaly represent a diagnostic challenge for pediatricians. We describe the frequency of congenital Zika syndrome (CZS) in Brazilian children born to asymptomatic pregnant mothers and its differential diagnosis. METHODS: This longitudinal, observational study was conducted on children with suspected CZS whose mothers did not report rash during pregnancy, referred to the reference hospital in a metropolitan area of ​ Rio de Janeiro, Brazil. The diagnosis of suspected CZS was based on Brazilian Ministry of Health protocol. RESULTS: Forty-three (17%) of 246 referred children were born to mothers without rash history during pregnancy. Thirteen (30%) of 43 children met the Brazilian Ministry of Health criteria for CZS, all with microcephaly (two post-natal). The other children included 11 cases with post-natal microcephaly due to hypoxic-ischemic encephalopathy (6), non-progressive encephalopathy of unknown etiology (2), microcephaly under investigation (2) and congenital toxoplasmosis (1); 17 children were misdiagnosed with microcephaly and progressed with normal head circumference during the follow-up period; one child was included because of epidemiological link and one was loss to follow-up. All children who underwent laboratory investigation for ZIKV infection during neonatal period had negative RT-qPCR tests. CONCLUSION: We emphasize the increasing importance of CZS in differential diagnosis of microcephaly at birth or post-natal period. Detailed clinical investigation assisted by neuroimaging tests may clarify the diagnosis of CZS when laboratory tests are not available during the acute phase of the disease.

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The main source of Vitamin D is the bioconversion of 7-dehydrocholesterol to cholecalciferol, however, the level of sun exposition has been drastically reduced during the last decades, so it is not unusual to find a high deficit of Vitamin D in the population. There is evidence to suggest that the deficit of Vitamin D is associated with a worse evolution of asthma and a greater risk of serious exacerbations. Possibly prenatal Vitamin D supplementation to pregnant mothers reduces the risk of wheezing and asthma in the offspring, and supplementation to asthmatic children could improve the evolution of the disease.

La principal fuente de Vitamina D es la bioconversión del 7-dehidrocolesterol a colecalciferol, sin embargo, el nivel de exposición solar se ha reducido drásticamente durante las últimas décadas, por lo que no es extraño encontrar un déficit elevado de Vitamina D en la población. Existe evidencia que sugiere que el déficit de Vitamina D se asocia a peor evolución del asma y mayor riesgo de exacerbaciones graves. Posiblemente la suplementación prenatal de Vitamina D a madres embarazadas reduzca el riesgo de sibilancias y asma en los hijos que nacerán, y la suplementación a niños asmáticos podría mejorar la evolución de la enfermedad.

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BACKGROUND: Abdominal strength training before and during pregnancy has been recommended to enhance normal vaginal birth by enabling increased force needed for active pushing. However, to date there is little research addressing this hypothesis. OBJECTIVE: To investigate whether nulliparous pregnant women reporting regular abdominal strength training prior to and at two time points during pregnancy have reduced risk of cesarean section, instrumental assisted vaginal delivery and third- and fourth-degree perineal tears. METHODS: Analysis of 36124 nulliparous pregnant women participating in the Norwegian Mother and Child Cohort Study during the period 1999-2009 who responded to questions regards the main exposure; regular abdominal strength training. Data on delivery outcomes were retrieved from the Medical Birth Registry of Norway. Logistic regression analyses were used to evaluate the association between exposure and outcome before pregnancy and at gestational weeks 17 and 30. RESULTS: Amongst participants, 66.9% reported doing abdominal strength training exercises before pregnancy, declining to 31.2% at gestational week 30. The adjusted odds ratios were 0.97 (95% CI 0.79-1.19) for acute cesarean section, among those training with the same frequency before and during pregnancy compared to those that never trained. The results were similar for instrumental assisted vaginal delivery and third- and fourth-degree perineal tear. CONCLUSION: There was no association between the report of regular abdominal strength training before and during pregnancy and delivery outcomes in this prospective population-based cohort.

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Exposure to stress early in life may negatively impact nervous system functioning, including increasing the proneness to learning and memory impairments later in life. Maternal deprivation, a model of early-life stress, hinders memory in adult rats and lessens brain-derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF) levels in the hippocampus in a very heterogeneous way among individuals. The main goal of the present study was to investigate the possible epigenetic modulation underlying recognition memory impairment and reduced BDNF levels in the hippocampus of adult maternally deprived rats. We also evaluated the potential ameliorating properties of the histone deacetylase (HDAC) inhibitor, sodium butyrate, on memory deficits and BDNF changes related to maternal deprivation. Maternally deprived animals were categorized as 'inferior learners' and 'superior learners' according to their performance in object recognition memory task in comparison to controls. Results indicated that HDAC activity was higher in individuals submitted to maternal deprivation with the worst cognitive performance (inferior learners). Acute administration of sodium butyrate increased histone H3 acetylation and BDNF levels, and restored recognition memory in maternally deprived animals with the worst cognitive performance. Moreover, we also showed that there is a positive correlation between BDNF levels and memory performance. Taken together, the results indicated that HDAC inhibitors could be considered as a possible therapeutic agent to improve cognitive performance in inferior learners. Further studies need to be conducted for a better comprehension of the mechanisms related to persistent alterations observed in adult life induced by early stressful circumstances and those leading to resilience.

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Experimental animal studies have shown that early life periods are highly vulnerable to environmental factors, which may exert prolonged impact on HPA axis function and on subsequent neurochemical and behavioral responses in adulthood. Here we evaluated the influence of environmental stressful situations in two different early life stages on stress-related behaviors, and morphine-conditioned place preference (CPP), which is indicative of addiction. While in the gestational stress (Gest-S) dams were exposed to daily sessions of chronic mild stress (CMS) for 2 weeks, in the postnatal stress (post-NS) the offspring were exposed daily to neonatal isolation from postnatal day (PND) 2 to PND 9 for 60 min. Animals exposed to post-NS showed lesser anxiety in different behavioral paradigms (elevated plus maze-EPM and defensive burying test-DBT) as well as increased exploratory behavior (open-field task-OFT), and no preference for morphine in CPP. In contrast, animals exposed to Gest-S showed increased corticosterone plasma levels together with anxiety symptoms and greater preference for morphine following three days of drug withdrawal. Our findings indicate that the gestational period is critical for stress, whose effects may be manifest throughout life. On the other hand, post-NS can trigger neuroadaptations able to overcome emotional consequences of early life. We hypothesized that Gest-S is able to modify responses to opioids along adulthood, which may facilitate development of addiction to these drugs.

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Müller cells are not only the main glial cell type in the retina but also latent progenitor/stem cells, which in pathological conditions can transdifferentiate to a neuronal phenotype and regenerate the neurons lost in a mature retina. Several signal transduction pathways can induce the dedifferentiation of mature Müller cells to a progenitor-like state, including that stimulated by glutamate. However, the precise molecular mechanisms by which terminally differentiated cells are initially primed to acquire multipotency remain unclear. In the present study, we have characterized early genetic and epigenetic events that occur immediately after glutamate-induced dedifferentiation of fully differentiated Müller cells is initiated. Using Müller cell-enriched cultures from postnatal rats, we demonstrate that glutamate triggers a rapid dedifferentiation response characterized by changes in cell morphology coupled to the induction of progenitor cell marker gene expression (e.g., nestin, lin28 and sox2) within 1h. Dedifferentiation involved the activation of N-methyl-d-aspartate and type II metabotropic glutamate receptors, as well as global DNA demethylation (evident through the decrease in methyl-CpG-binding protein 2 immunoreactivity) and an increase in gadd45-ß gene expression; although, early progenitor gene expression was only partially inhibited by pharmacological impairment of DNA methylation. Importantly, the expression of Müller glia identity genes (i.e., glutamine synthetase; cellular retinaldehyde binding protein, CRALBP) is retained through the process. Dedifferentiated Müller cells held an early neuronal differentiation potential similar to that observed in retinal progenitor-enriched cultures but, contrary to the latter, dedifferentiated Müller cells failed to further differentiate into mature photoreceptor lineages. We speculate that, in spite of the initial triggering of the dedifferentiation pathways, these cells may exhibit a certain degree of epigenetic memory that precludes them from further differentiation.

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Prolonged and repeated periods of maternal separation produce behavioral phenotype of increased vulnerability to neuropsychiatric disorders and drug abuse. Most of the changes in behavior, corticosterone (CORT) and monoamine levels induced by long maternal separation (LMS) are observed after a challenge, but not in basal conditions. LMS increases ethanol-induced locomotor response and self-administration, possibly due to changes in CORT release and/or monoamine concentrations. This study examined the effects of LMS in association with chronic ethanol treatment on plasma CORT and brain monoamine concentrations in male and female Swiss mice, which were kept undisturbed (animal facility rearing - AFR) or separated from their mothers for 3h/day, from 2 to 14 days of age (LMS). As adults, one set of male and female mice received no drug treatment to assess the effect of LMS per se. Another set of animals received saline injections for 20 days and one ethanol injection (2.2g/kg, i.p.) on day 21 (acute) or ethanol for 21 days (chronic). Locomotor activity, plasma CORT levels and monoamines in the frontal cortex, striatum and hippocampus of AFR and LMS mice were evaluated in non-treated, acute and chronic ethanol-treated animals. In non-treated mice, no differences were found in CORT or locomotor activity, with small changes in monoamines content. In LMS females, chronic ethanol increased dopamine and serotonin concentrations in the frontal cortex, relative to acute ethanol LMS and to chronic ethanol-treated AFR groups (p<0.05). In LMS males, chronic ethanol increased hippocampal noradrenaline, dopamine, serotonin and metabolites when compared to respective AFR controls, as well as acute LMS. Moreover, chronic ethanol treatment resulted in higher CORT concentrations in LMS than in AFR males. Overall, these results indicate that LMS mice were more susceptible to the effects of chronic ethanol administration on CORT and brain monoamine concentrations, and that these effects were sex-dependent.

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Animals exposed to an early adverse event may be more susceptible to a second source of stress later in life, and these stressors may have additive deleterious effects. Sleep deprivation is known to be a stressor, affecting multiple body functions such as the cognition. Modafinil enhances working memory and attention in healthy non-sleep deprived subjects and in animal models of sleep deprivation. The first aim of the present study was to investigate the effects of maternal separation (MS) combined with paradoxical sleep deprivation (PSD) in adulthood on recognition memory in rats. Second, we aimed to evaluate whether the administration of modafinil would be able to ameliorate memory deficits induced by MS and PSD. Wistar rat pups were initially distributed into MS and handling (H) groups, with their litters standardized in 4 females and 4 males. In adulthood, the male rats were submitted to PSD or control condition, being redistributed afterwards in modafinil- or vehicle-treatment immediately after the training session of object recognition task. PSD did not potentiate the cognitive deficit due to MS. However, modafinil was able to recover memory impairments associated to PSD and also to MS in the neonatal period. This study demonstrates for the first time that modafinil ameliorates cognitive deficits associated to MS and to PSD in adulthood, independent from MS in the neonatal period.

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El presente trabajo se refiere a la deleción del brazo corto del cromosoma 5 responsable del Síndrome de Maullido de Gato o “Cri Du Chat”. Las deleciones son aberraciones cromosómicas no balanceadas y consisten en la perdida de un fragmento de un cromosoma, las mismas pueden ser terminales, intersticiales o en anillo. El efecto fenotípico de la deleción depende del cromosoma implicado y la longitud del segmento delecionado. La apreciación de esta aberración estructural generalmente se dificulta si se trata de deleciones terminales pequeñas o intersticiales. Se tomó una muestra de sangre periférica de un paciente para cultivo linfocitario a petición de médicos de asistencia debido a las características fenotípicas del paciente así como características del llanto y el estridor laríngeo posiblemente asociado acromosomopatías. La muestra se cultivó y procesó según las técnicas estandarizadas en nuestro laboratorio, como resultado del diagnóstico post-natal citogenético se evidenció una deleción terminal del brazo corto del cromosoma 5 en todas las metafases estudiadas (Línea pura) 46XY, del (5), (p15.1).

The following research deals with the missing of the chromosome five's short arm that causes the cry of the cat syndrome or "Cri Du Chat". The missings are unbalanced chromosomic aberrations that consist on the loss of a chromosome's fragment and they could be final, intersticial or in ring. The phenotype effect of the missing depends on the involved chromosome and the length of the missing segment. The assessment of this structural aberration is generally affected when dealing with short final or intersticial missings. A patient's peripheric blood sample was drawn for a lymphocytory culture as the request of assistant doctors due to the patient's phenotypical features, as well as the cry's characteristics and the laringeal whoop associated to chromosomopathies. The sample was processed and cultured according to the standard techniques in our lab. A final missing of the chromosome five's short arm in all the studied meta stages was proved as a result of the cytogenetic post-natal diagnosis.

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Introducción: La salud mental de la madre influye en la calidad de las interacciones tempranas madre-hijo, comprometiendo el desarrollo del niño. El crecimiento de los niños es una variable importante a analizar. Estudios realizados en Estados Unidos y en Europa muestran una relación entre variaciones de la talla y enfermedades crónicas del adulto. Algunos estudios en países de bajos ingresos evidencian que la depresión post parto tiene un efecto negativo en el crecimiento temprano de sus hijos, sin embargo, hay otros que no encuentran esta relación. El objetivo es realizar una revisión sistemática sobre la relación que existe entre depresión materna y crecimiento infantil Métodos: se realizó una búsqueda bibliográfica en PUBMED sobre el tema en cuestión, publicados en los últimos 10 años. Se incluyeron estudios tipo caso control y de cohorte y niños hasta 4 años de edad. Para medir depresión materna se usó la Escala de Depresión de Edimburgo y la entrevista clínica estructurada del DSM IV o del CIE-10 para Episodio Depresivo Mayor. Resultados: se encontraron 23 artículos, se seleccionaron 11. En 6 de ellos la depresión materna es un factor de riesgo para el crecimiento infantil, en 4 no se encontró relación y en 1 se relacionó con mayor adiposidad infantil. Conclusiones: la depresión materna constituye un factor de riesgo para la alteración del crecimiento infantil en las poblaciones más vulnerables, de bajos ingresos y no representaría un factor de riesgo para poblaciones más privilegiadas, de altos ingresos, pudiendo provocar una alteración transitoria.

Introduction: the mental health of the mother influences the quality of early mother-child interactions compromising the child´s development. The growth of children in an important variable to analyze. Studies in the Unites States and Europe show a relationship between variations in size and adult chronic diseases. Studies in low-income countries show that postpartum depression has a negative effect on the early growth of their children; however, others find no relationship. The goal in to find the relationship between maternal depression and infant growth thought a systematically review. Methods: we performed a literature search of PUBMED on the topic, published in the last 10 years. We included case-control studies and cohort and children up to age 4. To measure maternal depression scale was used Depression Edinburg, the structured clinical interview of DSM-IV or ICD-10 for Major Depressive Episodes. Results : there were 23 articles, 11 were selected, in 6 of them found maternal depression is a risk factor for child growth failure, in 4 there was no relationship and 1 was associated with increases adiposity children. Conclusions: maternal depression is a risk factor for impaired childhood gowth in the population most vulnerable, low-income countries and do not represent a risk factor for more privileged populations, high-income countries and can cause a transient alteration.

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OBJETIVO: Avaliar os efeitos do treino físico imposto às ratas mães durante a gestação associado a uma dieta hipoproteica imposta durante os períodos gestacional e de lactação sobre o desenvolvimento e crescimento do fêmur da prole. MÉTODOS: Quarenta ratos machos Wistar, 90 dias de vida, foram divididos em quatro grupos: filhotes de mãe sedentária nutrida, filhotes de mãe sedentária desnutrida, filhotes de mãe treinada nutrida e filhotes de mãe treinada desnutrida, todos com n = 10. Treinamento físico em esteira durante 8 semanas, 5 semanas antes da concepção e 3 no período gestacional para as ratas mães dos grupos filhotes de mães treinada nutrida e treinada desnutrida. Indução da dieta hipoproteica às ratas mães durante a gestação e lactação para os grupos filhotes de mães sedentária desnutrida e treinada desnutrida. Após sacrifício, no 90º dia de vida, analisou-se peso, comprimento e conteúdo mineral ósseo do fêmur dos filhotes. RESULTADOS: Peso corporal, peso femoral e comprimento femoral diminuídos (p < 0,05) para os grupos filhotes de mães sedentária desnutrida e treinada desnutrida em relação aos grupos filhotes de mães sedentária nutrida e treinada nutrida, respectivamente. Não houve diferença no conteúdo mineral ósseo do fêmur em nenhum dos grupos. CONCLUSÃO: O treinamento físico leve em esteira durante a gestação não interfere no desenvolvimento e crescimento ósseo da prole. Entretanto, a desnutrição proteica durante esse período e durante a lactação promove prejuízos permanentes à estrutura óssea da prole.

OBJECTIVE: To evaluate the effects of physical training of mother rats during pregnancy associated with a low-protein diet offered during pregnancy and lactation on the development and growth of the femur of their offspring. METHODS: Forty 90-day old male Wistar rats were divided into four groups: pups of sedentary nourished mothers, pups of sedentary malnourished mothers, pups of trained nourished mothers, and pups of trained malnourished mothers; all groups included 10 rats. Physical training on a treadmill for 8 weeks, 5 weeks before conception and 3 weeks in the gestational period for mother rats of pups of trained nourished mothers and pups of trained malnourished mothers. Induction of low-protein diet to the mother rats during pregnancy and lactation for the groups of pups of sedentary malnourished mothers and trained malnourished mothers. After the pups were sacrificed, on the 90th day of life, we analyzed weight, length, and femoral bone mineral content. RESULTS: Decreased body weight, femur weight, and femur length (p < 0.05) were observed for the groups of pups of sedentary malnourished mothers and trained malnourished mothers in comparison with to the groups of pups of sedentary nourished mothers and trained nourished mothers, respectively. There was no difference in bone mineral content of the femur in either of the groups. CONCLUSION: Mild of physical training on the treadmill during pregnancy does not interfere with bone development and growth of the offspring. However, protein malnutrition during this period and during lactation promotes permanent damage to the bone structure of the offspring.

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