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Plant hormones are chemical signals governing almost every aspect of a plant's life cycle and responses to environmental cues. They are enmeshed within complex signaling networks that can only be deciphered by using broad-scale analytical methods to capture information about several plant hormone classes simultaneously. Methods used for this purpose are all based on reversed-phase (RP) liquid chromatography and mass spectrometric detection. Hydrophilic interaction chromatography (HILIC) is an alternative chromatographic method that performs well in analyses of biological samples. We therefore developed and validated a HILIC method for broad-scale plant hormone analysis including a rapid sample preparation procedure; moreover, derivatization or fractionation is not required. The method enables plant hormone screening focused on polar and moderately polar analytes including cytokinins, auxins, jasmonates, abscisic acid and its metabolites, salicylates, indoleamines (melatonin), and 1-aminocyclopropane-1-carboxylic acid (ACC), for a total of 45 analytes. Importantly, the major pitfalls of ACC analysis have been addressed. Furthermore, HILIC provides orthogonal selectivity to conventional RP methods and displays greater sensitivity, resulting in lower limits of quantification. However, it is less robust, so procedures to increase its reproducibility were established. The method's potential is demonstrated in a case study by employing an approach combining hormonal analysis with phenomics to examine responses of three Arabidopsis ecotypes toward three abiotic stress treatments: salinity, low nutrient availability, and their combination. The case study showcases the value of the simultaneous determination of several plant hormone classes coupled with phenomics data when unraveling processes involving complex cross-talk under diverse plant-environment interactions.

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Copper-based nanoparticles (NPs) are gradually being introduced as sustainable agricultural nanopesticides. However, the effects of NPs on plants requires carefully evaluation to ensure their safe utilization. In this study, leaves of 2-week-old lettuce (Lactuca sativa L.) were exposed to copper oxide nanoparticles (CuO-NPs, 0 [CK], 100 [T1], and 1000 [T2] mg/L) for 15 days. A significant Cu accumulation (up to 1966 mg/kg) was detected in lettuce leaves. The metabolomics revealed a total of 474 metabolites in lettuce leaves, and clear differences were observed in the metabolite profiles of control and CuO-NPs treated leaves. Generally, phenolic acids and alkaloids, which are important antioxidants, were significantly increased (1.26-4.53 folds) under foliar exposure to NPs; meanwhile, all the significantly affected flavonoids were down-regulated after CuO-NP exposure, indicating these flavonoids were consumed under oxidative stress. Succinic and citric acids, which are key components of the tricarboxylic acid cycle, were especially increased under T2, suggesting the energy and carbohydrate metabolisms were enhanced under high-concentration CuO-NP treatment. There was also both up- and down-regulation of fatty acids, suggesting cell membrane fluidity and function responded to CuO-NPs. Galactinol, which is related to galactose metabolism, and xanthosine, which is crucial in purine and caffeine metabolism, were down-regulated under T2, indicating decreased stress resistance and disturbed nucleotide metabolism under the high CuO-NP dose. Moreover, the differentially accumulated metabolites were significantly associated with plant growth and its antioxidant ability. Future work should focus on controlling the overuse or excessive release of NPs into agricultural ecosystems to limit their adverse effects.

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Climate change presents numerous challenges for agriculture, including frequent events of plant abiotic stresses such as elevated temperatures that lead to heat stress (HS). As the primary driving factor of climate change, HS threatens global food security and biodiversity. In recent years, HS events have negatively impacted plant physiology, reducing plant's ability to maintain disease resistance and resulting in lower crop yields. Plants must adapt their priorities toward defense mechanisms to tolerate stress in challenging environments. Furthermore, selective breeding and long-term domestication for higher yields have made crop varieties vulnerable to multiple stressors, making them more susceptible to frequent HS events. Studies on climate change predict that concurrent HS and biotic stresses will become more frequent and severe in the future, potentially occurring simultaneously or sequentially. While most studies have focused on singular stress effects on plant systems to examine how plants respond to specific stresses, the simultaneous occurrence of HS and biotic stresses pose a growing threat to agricultural productivity. Few studies have explored the interactions between HS and plant-biotic interactions. Here, we aim to shed light on the physiological and molecular effects of HS and biotic factor interactions (bacteria, fungi, oomycetes, nematodes, insect pests, pollinators, weedy species, and parasitic plants), as well as their combined impact on crop growth and yields. We also examine recent advances in designing and developing various strategies to address multi-stress scenarios related to HS and biotic factors.

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Plants are known for their significant dust retention capacity and are widely used to alleviate atmospheric pollution. Urban green plants are exposed to periodic particulate matter pollution stress, and the time intervals between periods of pollution exposure are often inconsistent. The impact of stress memory and pollution intervals on plant dust retention capacity and physiological characteristics during periodic stress is not yet clear. In this study, the common urban landscaping species Nerium oleander L. was selected as the test plant, and stable isotope (15NH4Cl) tracing technology and aerosol generators were used to simulate periodic PM2.5 pollution. This study included two particulate pollution periods (each lasting 14 days) and one recovery period with three different durations (7, 14, and 21 days). The results indicated that periodic particulate matter pollution-induced stress decreased the dust retention capacity of N. oleander leaf surfaces, but particle adsorption to the wax layer was more stable. As the duration of the recovery period increased, leaf particle absorption, which accounted for the greatest proportion of total dust retention, increased, indicating that leaves are the primary organ for dust retention in Nerium oleander L. Root absorption also increased with increasing recovery periods. Prior pollution stress increased oleander physiological and morphological responses, and the plant's air pollution tolerance significantly improved after a recovery period of >14 days.

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Sugar beet is a significant sugar crop in China, primarily cultivated in arid regions of the north. However, drought often affects sugar beet cultivation, leading to reduced yield and quality. Therefore, understanding the impact of drought on sugar beets and studying their drought tolerance is crucial. Previous research has examined the role of SPL (SQUAMOSA promoter-binding protein-like) transcription factors in plant stress response; however, the precise contribution of SPLs to the drought stress response in sugar beets has yet to be elucidated. In this study, we identified and examined the BvSPL6, BvSPL7, and BvSPL9 genes in sugar beets, investigating their performance during the seedling stage under drought stress. We explored their drought resistance characteristics using bioinformatics, quantitative analysis, physiological experiments, and molecular biology experiments. Drought stress and rehydration treatments were applied to sugar beet seedlings, and the expression levels of BvSPL6, BvSPL7, and BvSPL9 genes in leaves were quantitatively analyzed at 11 different time points to evaluate sugar beets' response and tolerance to drought stress. Results indicated that the expression level of the BvSPL6/9 genes in leaves was upregulated during the mid-stage of drought stress and downregulated during the early and late stages. Additionally, the expression level of the BvSPL7 gene gradually increased with the duration of drought stress. Through analyzing changes in physiological indicators during different time periods of drought stress and rehydration treatment, we speculated that the regulation of BvSPL6/7/9 genes is associated with sugar beet drought resistance and their participation in drought stress response. Furthermore, we cloned the CDS sequences of BvSPL6, BvSPL7, and BvSPL9 genes from sugar beets and conducted sequence alignment with the database to validate the results. Subsequently, we constructed overexpression vectors, named 35S::BvSPL6, 35S::BvSPL7, and 35S::BvSPL9, and introduced them into sugar beets using Agrobacterium-mediated methods. Real-time fluorescence quantitative analysis revealed that the expression levels of BvSPL6/7/9 genes in transgenic sugar beets increased by 40% to 80%. The drought resistance of transgenic sugar beets was significantly enhanced compared with the control group.

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To understand the role of reactive oxygen species (ROS) in regulation of the plasma membrane (PM) H+-ATPase in acid-stressed Masson pine roots, different acidity (pH 6.6 as the control, pH 5.6 and pH 4.6) of simulated acid rain (SAR) added with and without external chemicals (H2O2, enzyme inhibitors and ROS scavenger) was prepared. After 30 days of SAR exposure, the plant morphological phenotype attributes, levels of cellular ROS and lipid peroxidation, enzymatic activities of antioxidants, PM nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide phosphate (NADPH) oxidase activity and PM H+-ATPase activity in pine seedlings were measured. Compared with the control, the growth of pine seedlings exposed to SAR in the presence or absence of H2O2 was well-maintained, but the application of Na3VO4, 1,3-dimethyl-2-thiourea, N, N-dimethylthiourea (DMTU) and diphenyleneiodonium chloride (DPI) caused a substantial growth inhibition. In addition, SAR exposure, SAR with H2O2 treatment, and SAR with Na3VO4 treatment increased the cellular H2O2 content, O2- content and malondialdehyde (MDA) content, while the use of DMTU and DPI lead to relatively low levels. Similarly, the enzymatic activities of antioxidants, PM NADPH oxidase and PM H+-ATPase in acid stressed pine seedlings elevated with the increasing acidity. A significant stimulation of these enzymatic activities obtained from SAR with H2O2 treatment was observed, whereas which decreased obviously with the addition of Na3VO4, DMTU and DPI (P < 0.05). Moreover, a positive correlation was found between plant morphological attributes and the PM H+-ATPase activity (P < 0.05). Besides, the PM H+-ATPase activity positively correlated with the cellular ROS contents and the enzymatic activities of antioxidants and PM NADPH oxidase (P < 0.05). Therefore, the PM H+-ATPase is instrumental in the growth of pine seedlings resisting to acid stress by enhancing its activity. The process involves the signaling transduction of cellular ROS and coordination with PM NADPH oxidase.

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HSP90Cs are essential molecular chaperones localized in the plastid stroma that maintain protein homeostasis and assist the import and thylakoid transport of chloroplast proteins. While HSP90C contains all conserved domains as an HSP90 family protein, it also possesses a unique feature in its variable C-terminal extension (CTE) region. This study elucidated the specific function of this HSP90C CTE region. Our phylogenetic analyses revealed that this intrinsically disordered region contains a highly conserved DPW motif in the green lineages. With biochemical assays, we showed that the CTE is required for the chaperone to effectively interact with client proteins PsbO1 and LHCB2 to regulate ATP-independent chaperone activity and to effectuate its ATP hydrolysis. The CTE truncation mutants could support plant growth and development reminiscing the wild type under normal conditions except for a minor phenotype in cotyledon when expressed at a level comparable to wild type. However, higher HSP90C expression was observed to correlate with a stronger response to specific photosystem II inhibitor DCMU, and CTE truncations dampened the response. Additionally, when treated with lincomycin to inhibit chloroplast protein translation, CTE truncation mutants showed a delayed response to PsbO1 expression repression, suggesting its role in chloroplast retrograde signaling. Our study therefore provides insights into the mechanism of HSP90C in client protein binding and the regulation of green chloroplast maturation and function, especially under stress conditions.

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Very-long-chain fatty acids (VLCFAs) are essential precursors for plant membrane lipids, cuticular waxes, suberin, and storage oils. Integral to the fatty acid elongase (FAE) complex, 3-ketoacyl-CoA synthases (KCSs) function as crucial enzymes in the VLCFA pathway, determining the chain length of VLCFA. This study explores the in-planta role of the KCS19 gene. KCS19 is predominantly expressed in leaves and stem epidermis, sepals, styles, early silique walls, beaks, pedicels, and mature embryos. Localized in the endoplasmic reticulum, KCS19 interacts with other FAE proteins. kcs19 knockout mutants displayed reduced total wax and wax crystals, particularly alkanes, while KCS19 overexpression increased these components and wax crystals. Moreover, the cuticle permeability was higher for the kcs19 mutants compared to the wild type, rendering them more susceptible to drought and salt stress, whereas KCS19 overexpression enhanced drought and salt tolerance. Disrupting KCS19 increased C18 species and decreased C20 and longer species in seed fatty acids, indicating its role in elongating C18 to C20 VLCFAs, potentially up to C24 for seed storage lipids. Collectively, KCS19-mediated VLCFA synthesis is required for cuticular wax biosynthesis and seed storage lipids, impacting plant responses to abiotic stress.

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Drought stress is a significant environmental challenge affecting global agriculture, leading to substantial reductions in crop yields and overall plant productivity. It induces a cascade of physiological and biochemical changes in plants, including reduced water uptake, stomatal closure, and alterations in hormonal balance, all of which contribute to impaired growth and development. Drought stress diminishes crop production by impacting crucial plant metabolic pathways. Plants possess the ability to activate or deactivate specific sets of genes, leading to changes in their physiological and morphological characteristics. This adaptive response enables plants to evade, endure, or prevent the effects of drought stress. Drought stress triggers the activation of various genes, transcription factors, and signal transduction pathways in plants. In this context, imposing plant growth-promoting rhizobacteria (PGPR) emerges as a promising strategy. PGPR, employing diverse mechanisms such as osmotic adjustments, antioxidant activity, and phytohormone production, not only ensures the plant's survival during drought conditions but also enhances its overall growth. This comprehensive review delves into the various mechanisms through which PGPR enhances drought stress resistance, offering a thorough exploration of recent molecular and omics-based approaches to unravel the role of drought-responsive genes. The manuscript encompasses a detailed mechanistic analysis, along with the development of PGPR-based drought stress management in plants.

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Ubiquitination is a highly conserved and dynamic post-translational modification in which protein substrates are modified by ubiquitin to influence their activity, localization, or stability. Deubiquitination enzymes (DUBs) counter ubiquitin signaling by removing ubiquitin from the substrates. Ubiquitin-specific proteases (UBPs), the largest subfamily of DUBs, are conserved in plants, serving diverse functions across various cellular processes, although members within the same group often exhibit functional redundancy. Here, we briefly review recent advances in understanding the biological roles of UBPs, particularly the molecular mechanism by which UBPs regulate plant development and growth, morphogenesis, and stress response, which sheds light on the mechanistic roles of deubiquitination in plants.

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S. scabra is an important forage and extremophilic plant native to the Brazilian Caatinga semiarid region. It has only recently been subjected to omics-based investigations, and the generated datasets offer insights into biotechnologically significant candidates yet to be thoroughly examined. INSs (inositol and its derivatives) and RFO (raffinose oligosaccharide family) pathways emerge as pivotal candidates, given their critical roles in plant physiology. The mentioned compounds have also been linked to negative impacts on the absorption of nutrients in mammals, affecting overall nutritional intake and metabolism. Therefore, studying these metabolic pathways is important not just for plants but also for animals who depend on them as part of their diet. INS and RFO pathways in S. scabra stood out for their abundance of identified loci and enzymes. The enzymes exhibited genomic redundancy, being encoded by multiple loci and various gene families. The phylogenomic analysis unveiled an expansion of the PIP5K and GolS gene families relative to the immediate S. scabra ancestor. These enzymes are crucial for synthesizing key secondary messengers and the RFO precursor, respectively. Transcriptional control of the studied pathways was associated with DOF-type, C2H2, and BCP1 transcription factors. Identification of biological processes related to INS and RFO metabolic routes in S. scabra highlighted their significance in responding to stressful conditions prevalent in the Caatinga environment. Finally, RNA-Seq and qPCR data revealed the relevant influence of genes of the INS and RFO pathways in the S. scabra response to water deprivation. Our study deciphers the genetics and transcriptomics of the INS and RFO in S. scabra, shedding light on their importance for a Caatinga-native plant and paving the way for future biotechnological applications in this species and beyond.

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California is the primary processing tomato (Solanum lycopersicum) producer in the United States. Fusarium oxysporum f. sp. lycopercisi race 3 (Fol3), the cause of Fusarium wilt, is a major yield loss driver. Fol3 has recently been observed causing disease in resistant cultivars (I-3 R-gene), often in association with high soil salinity. This study undertook to better understand the effect of salinity on resistance-based management of Fol3. Surveys established opportunity for salinity-Fol3-tomato interactions in 44% of commercial fields examined, with harmful soil salt levels up to 3.6 dS/m (P < 0.001), high sodium (P < 0.001), and high sodicity (SAR > 13, P < 0.001). In controlled field studies of Fol3 in NaCl:CaCl2-treated soil, Fol3-resistant cultivars either only developed wilt under salt or only developed wilt above the industry non-hybrid threshold (2%) under salt across two trial years. Absence of yield differences indicate low to no economic impact of disease enhancement (P > 0.05). NaCl, CaCl2 and Na2SO4 had no effect on Fol3 propagule production in liquid agar vs. water agar controls (P > 0.05) although CaCl2 increased propagule loads 7-fold vs. ionic controls (PEG) (P = 0.036). NaCl:CaCl2 (2:1) reduced propagule loads up to 65% vs. no-salt (P = 0.029) in soil with pathogen-infested tomato tissue. These results together establish the opportunity for salinity-Fol3-tomato interactions and potential for salt to influence efficacy of resistant cultivar-based management-this does not appear to be primarily due to salt-enhancement of pathogen populations, pointing to a yet unexplored direct influence of salt on host resistance.

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Micro- and nano-plastics (MNPs) in the soil can impact the microbial diversity within rhizospheres and induce modifications in plants' morphological, physiological, and biochemical parameters. However, a significant knowledge gap still needs to be addressed regarding the specific effects of varying particle sizes and concentrations on the comprehensive interplay among soil dynamics, root exudation, and the overall plant system. In this sense, different omics techniques were employed to clarify the mechanisms of the action exerted by four different particle sizes of polyethylene plastics considering four different concentrations on the soil-roots exudates-plant system was studied using lettuce (Lactuca sativa L. var. capitata) as a model plant. The impact of MNPs was investigated using a multi-omics integrated approach, focusing on the tripartite interaction between the root metabolic process, exudation pattern, and rhizosphere microbial modulation. Our results showed that particle size and their concentrations significantly modulated the soil-roots exudates-plant system. Untargeted metabolomics highlighted that fatty acids, amino acids, and hormone biosynthesis pathways were significantly affected by MNPs. Additionally, they were associated with the reduction of rhizosphere bacterial α-diversity, following a size-dependent trend for specific taxa. The omics data integration highlighted a correlation between Pseudomonadata and Actinomycetota phyla and Bacillaceae family (Peribacillus simplex) and the exudation of flavonoids, phenolic acids, and lignans in lettuce exposed to increasing sizes of MNPs. This study provides a novel insight into the potential effects of different particle sizes and concentrations of MNPs on the soil-plant continuum, providing evidence about size- and concentration-dependent effects, suggesting the need for further investigation focused on medium- to long-term exposure.

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Plant health monitoring is essential for understanding the impact of environmental stressors (biotic and abiotic) on crop production, and for tailoring plant developmental and adaptive responses accordingly. Plants are constantly exposed to different stressors like pathogens and soil pollutants (heavy metals and pesticides) which pose a serious threat to their survival and to human health. Plants have the ability to respond to environmental stressors by undergoing rapid transcriptional, translational, and metabolic reprogramming at different cellular compartments in order to balance growth and adaptive responses. However, plants' exceptional responsiveness to environmental cues is highly complex, which is driven by diverse signaling molecules such as calcium Ca2+, reactive oxygen species (ROS), hormones, small peptides and metabolites. Additionally, other factors like pH also influence these responses. The regulation and occurrence of these plant signaling molecules are often undetectable, necessitating nondestructive, live research approaches to understand their molecular complexity and functional traits during growth and stress conditions. With the advent of sensors, in vivo and in vitro understanding of some of these processes associated with plant physiology, signaling, metabolism, and development has provided a novel platform not only for decoding the biochemical complexity of signaling pathways but also for targeted engineering to improve diverse plant traits. The application of sensors in detecting pathogens and soil pollutants like heavy metal and pesticides plays a key role in protecting plant and human health. In this review, we provide an update on sensors used in plant biology for the detection of diverse signaling molecules and their functional attributes. We also discuss different types of sensors (biosensors and nanosensors) used in agriculture for detecting pesticides, pathogens and pollutants.

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Co-pyrolysis of chicken manure with tree bark was investigated to mitigate salinity and potentially toxic element (PTE) concentrations of chicken manure-derived biochar. The effect of tree bark addition (0, 25, 50, 75 and 100 wt%) on the biochar composition, surface functional groups, PTEs and polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAH) concentration in the biochar was evaluated. Biochar-induced toxicity was assessed using an in-house plant growth assay with Arabidopsis thaliana. This study shows that PTE concentrations can be controlled through co-pyrolysis. More than 50 wt% of tree bark must be added to chicken manure to reduce the concentrations below the European Biochar Certificate-AGRO (EBC-AGRO) threshold. However, the amount of PAH does not show a trend with tree bark addition. Furthermore, co-pyrolysis biochar promotes plant growth at different application concentrations, whereas pure application of 100 wt% tree bark or chicken manure biochar results in decreased growth compared to the reference. In addition, increased plant stress was observed for 100 wt% chicken manure biochar. These data indicate that co-pyrolysis of chicken manure and tree bark produces EBC-AGRO-compliant biochar with the potential to stimulate plant growth. Further studies need to assess the effect of these biochars in long-term growth experiments.

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Climate change-induced environmental stresses pose significant challenges to plant survival and agricultural productivity. In response, many plants undergo genetic reprogramming, resulting in profound alterations in metabolic pathways and the production of diverse secondary metabolites. As a critical molecular junction, intermediate metabolites by targeted intensification or suppression of subpathways channel cell resources into a multifaceted array of functions such as cell signals, photosynthesis, energy metabolism, ROS homeostasis, producing defensive and protective molecules, epigenetic regulation and stress memory, phytohormones biosynthesis and cell wall architecture under stress conditions. Unlike the well-established functions of end products, intermediate metabolites are context-dependent and produce enigmatic alternatives during stress. As key components of signal transduction pathways, intermediate metabolites with relay and integration of stress signals ensure responses to stress combinations. Investigating efficient metabolic network pathways and their role in regulating unpredictable paths from upstream to downstream levels can unlock their full potential to shape the future of agriculture and ensure global food security. Here, we summarized the activity of some intermediate metabolites, from the perception step to tolerance responses to stress factors.

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Oxidative damage, exacerbated by the excessive accumulation of reactive oxygen species (ROS), profoundly inhibits both crop growth and yield. Herein, a biocompatible nanozyme, calcium hexacyanoferrate nanoparticles (CaHCF NPs), targeting ROS is developed, to mitigate oxidative damage and sequestrate heavy metal ions during plant growth. Uniquely, CaHCF NPs feature multifaced enzyme-like activities, involving superoxide dismutase (SOD), catalase (CAT), peroxidase (POD), glutathione peroxidase, thiol peroxidase, and ascorbate peroxidase, which enable them to neutralize excessive ROS. Furthermore, CaHCF NPs promote calcium-cadmium exchange process, diminishing the uptake of heavy metals. Importantly, 120 µg mL-1 of CaHCF NPs alleviate the inhibitory effects of hydrogen peroxide and cadmium chloride on Arabidopsis and tomato. The activities of SOD, POD, and CAT increase by 46.2%, 74.4%, and 48.3%, respectively, meanwhile the glutathione level rises by 72.4% in Arabidopsis under cadmium stress. Moreover, CaHCF NPs boost the expression of genes associated with antioxidation, heavy metal detoxification, nutrient transport, and stress resistance. These findings unveil the significant potential of nanoplatforms equipped with nanozymes in alleviating oxidative stress in plants, which not only regulate crop growth but also substantially ameliorate yield and quality, heralding a new era in agricultural nanotechnology.

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Extrachromosomal circular DNA (eccDNA) is genetic material that exists outside of chromosomes and holds potential for next-generation genetic engineering in plant biology. By improving plant resilience, growth, and productivity, eccDNA offers a promising solution to global challenges in food security and environmental sustainability, making this a transformative era in agricultural biotechnology.

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Plant-microbe interaction research has had a transformative trajectory, from individual microbial isolate studies to comprehensive analyses of plant microbiomes within the broader phytobiome framework. Acknowledging the indispensable role of plant microbiomes in shaping plant health, agriculture, and ecosystem resilience, we underscore the urgent need for sustainable crop production strategies in the face of contemporary challenges. We discuss how the synergies between advancements in 'omics technologies and artificial intelligence can help advance the profound potential of plant microbiomes. Furthermore, we propose a multifaceted approach encompassing translational considerations, transdisciplinary research initiatives, public-private partnerships, regulatory policy development, and pragmatic expectations for the practical application of plant microbiome knowledge across diverse agricultural landscapes. We advocate for strategic collaboration and intentional transdisciplinary efforts to unlock the benefits offered by plant microbiomes and address pressing global issues in food security. By emphasizing a nuanced understanding of plant microbiome complexities and fostering realistic expectations, we encourage the scientific community to navigate the transformative journey from discoveries in the laboratory to field applications. As companies specializing in agricultural microbes and microbiomes undergo shifts, we highlight the necessity of understanding how to approach sustainable agriculture with site-specific management solutions. While cautioning against overpromising, we underscore the excitement of exploring the many impacts of microbiome-plant interactions. We emphasize the importance of collaborative endeavors with societal partners to accelerate our collective capacity to harness the diverse and yet-to-be-discovered beneficial activities of plant microbiomes.

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Abiotic stressors, including drought, salt, cold, and heat, profoundly impact plant growth and development, forcing elaborate cellular responses for adaptation and resilience. Among the crucial orchestrators of these responses is the CBL-CIPK pathway, comprising calcineurin B-like proteins (CBLs) and CBL-interacting protein kinases (CIPKs). While CIPKs act as serine/threonine protein kinases, transmitting calcium signals, CBLs function as calcium sensors, influencing the plant's response to abiotic stress. This review explores the intricate interactions between the CBL-CIPK pathway and plant hormones such as ABA, auxin, ethylene, and jasmonic acid (JA). It highlights their role in fine-tuning stress responses for optimal survival and acclimatization. Building on previous studies that demonstrated the enhanced stress tolerance achieved by upregulating CBL and CIPK genes, we explore the regulatory mechanisms involving post-translational modifications and protein-protein interactions. Despite significant contributions from prior research, gaps persist in understanding the nuanced interplay between the CBL-CIPK system and plant hormone signaling under diverse abiotic stress conditions. In contrast to broader perspectives, our review focuses on the interaction of the pathway with crucial plant hormones and its implications for genetic engineering interventions to enhance crop stress resilience. This specialized perspective aims to contribute novel insights to advance our understanding of the potential of the CBL-CIPK pathway to mitigate crops' abiotic stress.

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