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The study and importance of altitudinal migration has attracted increasing interest among zoologists. Altitudinal migrants are taxonomically widespread and move across altitudinal gradients as partial or complete migrants, subjecting them to a wide array of environments and ecological interactions. Here, we present a brief synthesis of recent developments in the field and suggest future directions toward a more taxonomically inclusive comparative framework for the study of altitudinal migration. Our framework centers on a working definition of altitudinal migration that hinges on its biological relevance, which is scale-dependent and related to fitness outcomes. We discuss linguistic nuances of altitudinal movements and provide concrete steps to compare altitudinal migration phenomena across traditionally disparate study systems. Together, our comparative framework outlines a "phenotypic space" that contextualizes the biotic and abiotic interactions encountered by altitudinal migrants from divergent lineages and biomes. We also summarize new opportunities, methods, and challenges for the ongoing study of altitudinal migration. A persistent, primary challenge is characterizing the taxonomic extent of altitudinal migration within and among species. Fortunately, a host of new methods have been developed to help researchers assess the taxonomic prevalence of altitudinal migration-each with their own advantages and disadvantages. An improved comparative framework will allow researchers that study disparate disciplines and taxonomic groups to better communicate and to test hypotheses regarding the evolutionary and ecological drivers underlying variation in altitudinal migration among populations and species.

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BACKGROUND: Movement links the distribution of habitats with the social environment of animals using those habitats. Despite the links between movement, habitat selection, and socioecology, their integration remains a challenge due to lack of shared vocabulary across fields, methodological gaps, and the implicit (rather than explicit) historical development of theory in the fields of social and spatial ecology. Given these challenges can be addressed, opportunity for further study will provide insight about the links between social, spatial, and movement ecology. Here, our objective was to disentangle the roles of habitat selection and social association as drivers of movement in caribou (Rangifer tarandus). METHODS: To accomplish our objective, we modelled the relationship between collective movement and selection of foraging habitats using socially informed integrated step selection function (iSSF). Using iSSF, we modelled the effect of social processes, i.e., nearest neighbour distance and social preference, and movement behaviour on patterns of habitat selection. RESULTS: By unifying social network analysis with iSSF, we identified movement-dependent social association, where individuals took shorter steps in lichen habitat and foraged in close proximity to more familiar individuals. CONCLUSIONS: Our study demonstrates that social preference is context-dependent based on habitat selection and foraging behaviour. We therefore surmise that habitat selection and social association are drivers of collective movement, such that movement is the glue between habitat selection and social association. Here, we put these concepts into practice to demonstrate that movement is the glue connecting individual habitat selection to the social environment.

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Human evolutionary ecology stands to benefit by integrating theory and methods developed in movement ecology, and in turn, to make contributions to the broader field of movement ecology by leveraging our species' distinct attributes. In this paper, we review data and evolutionary models suggesting that major changes in socio-spatial behaviour accompanied the evolution of language. To illustrate and explore these issues, we present a comparison of GPS measures of the socio-spatial behaviour of Hadza hunter-gatherers of northern Tanzania to those of olive baboons (Papio anubis), a comparatively small-brained primate that is also savanna-adapted. While standard spatial metrics show modest differences, measures of spatial diversity, landscape exploration and spatiotemporal displacement between individuals differ markedly. Groups of Hadza foragers rapidly accumulate a vast, diverse knowledge pool about places and things over the horizon, contrasting with the baboon's narrower and more homogeneous pool of ecological information. The larger and more complex socio-spatial world illustrated by the Hadza is one where heightened cognitive abilities for spatial and episodic memory, navigation, perspective taking and communication about things beyond the here and now all have clear value.This article is part of the theme issue 'The spatial-social interface: a theoretical and empirical integration'.

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Human disturbance is contributing to widespread, global changes in the distributions and densities of wild animals. These anthropogenic impacts on wildlife arise from multiple bottom-up and top-down pathways, including habitat loss, resource provisioning, climate change, pollution, infrastructure development, hunting and our direct presence. Animal behaviour is an important mechanism linking these disturbances to population outcomes, although these behavioural pathways are often complex and can remain obscured when different aspects of behaviour are studied in isolation from one another. The spatial-social interface provides a lens for understanding how an animal's spatial and social environments interact to determine its spatial and social phenotype (i.e. measurable characteristics of an individual), and how these phenotypes interact and feed back to reshape environments. Here, we review studies of animal behaviour at the spatial-social interface to understand and predict how human disturbance affects animal movement, distribution and intraspecific interactions, with consequences for the conservation of populations and ecosystems. By understanding the spatial-social mechanisms linking human disturbance to conservation outcomes, we can better design management interventions to mitigate undesired consequences of disturbance.This article is part of the theme issue 'The spatial-social interface: a theoretical and empirical integration'.

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Dispersal is a complex series of movements before an individual establishes a home range. Animals must travel and forage in unfamiliar landscapes that include anthropogenic risks such as road crossings, harvest, and urban landscapes. We compare dispersal behavior of juvenile mountain lions (Puma concolor) from two geographically distinct populations in California and Nevada, USA. These two sites are ecologically similar but have different management practices; hunting is permitted in Nevada, whereas mountain lions are protected in California. We used GPS-collar data and net-squared displacement analysis to identify three dispersal states: exploratory, departure, and transient home range. We then compared each dispersal state of the two mountain lion populations using an integrated step selection analysis (iSSA). The model included explanatory variables hypothesized to influence one or more dispersal states, including distance to forest, shrub, water, hay and crop, developed lands, and four-wheel drive roads, as well as elevation and terrain ruggedness. Results revealed consistent habitat selection between sites across most landscape variables, with one notable exception: anthropogenic covariates, including distance to developed land, distance to hay and crop, and distance to four-wheeled drive roads, were only statistically significant on modeled habitat selection during dispersal in the population subject to hunting (i.e., Nevada). Results suggest that hunting (pursuit with hounds resulting in harvest) and non-lethal pursuit (pursuit with hounds but no harvest allowed) increase avoidance of anthropogenic landscapes during dispersal for juvenile mountain lions. By comparing populations, we provided valuable insights into the role of management in shaping dispersal behavior.

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Studying the mechanisms shaping age-related changes in behavior ("behavioral aging") is important for understanding population dynamics in our changing world. Yet, studies that capture within-individual behavioral changes in wild populations of long-lived animals are still scarce. Here, we used a 15-y GPS-tracking dataset of a social obligate scavenger, the griffon vulture (Gyps fulvus), to investigate age-related changes in movement and social behaviors, and disentangle the role of behavioral plasticity and selective disappearance in shaping such patterns. We tracked 142 individuals for up to 12 y and found a nonlinear increase in site fidelity with age: a sharp increase in site fidelity before sexual maturity (<5 y old), stabilization during adulthood (6 to 15 y), and a further increase at old age (>15 y). This pattern resulted from individuals changing behavior throughout their life (behavioral plasticity) and not from selective disappearance. Mature vultures increased the predictability of their movement routines and spent more nights at the most popular roosting sites compared to younger individuals. Thus, adults likely have a competitive advantage over younger conspecifics. These changes in site fidelity and movement routines were mirrored in changes to social behavior. Older individuals interacted less with their associates (decreasing average strength with age), particularly during the breeding season. Our results reveal a variety of behavioral aging patterns in long-lived species and underscore the importance of behavioral plasticity in shaping such patterns. Comprehensive longitudinal studies are imperative for understanding how plasticity and selection shape the persistence of wild animal populations facing human-induced environmental changes.

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BACKGROUND: Movement plays a key role in allowing animal species to adapt to sudden environmental shifts. Anthropogenic climate and land use change have accelerated the frequency of some of these extreme disturbances, including megafire. These megafires dramatically alter ecosystems and challenge the capacity of several species to adjust to a rapidly changing landscape. Ungulates and their movement behaviors play a central role in the ecosystem functions of fire-prone ecosystems around the world. Previous work has shown behavioral plasticity is an important mechanism underlying whether large ungulates are able to adjust to recent changes in their environments effectively. Ungulates may respond to the immediate effects of megafire by adjusting their movement and behavior, but how these responses persist or change over time following disturbance is poorly understood. METHODS: We examined how an ecologically dominant ungulate with strong site fidelity, Columbian black-tailed deer (Odocoileus hemionus columbianus), adjusted its movement and behavior in response to an altered landscape following a megafire. To do so, we collected GPS data from 21 individual female deer over the course of a year to compare changes in home range size over time and used resource selection functions (RSFs) and hidden Markov movement models (HMMs) to assess changes in behavior and habitat selection. RESULTS: We found compelling evidence of adaptive capacity across individual deer in response to megafire. Deer avoided exposed and severely burned areas that lack forage and could be riskier for predation immediately following megafire, but they later altered these behaviors to select areas that burned at higher severities, potentially to take advantage of enhanced forage. CONCLUSIONS: These results suggest that despite their high site fidelity, deer can navigate altered landscapes to track rapid shifts in encounter risk with predators and resource availability. This successful adjustment of movement and behavior following extreme disturbance could help facilitate resilience at broader ecological scales.

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American lobster inhabit the unique, brackish Bras d'Or Lake system, although densities are low compared to areas with similar habitats in the Atlantic Ocean. Nevertheless, lobsters are an important part of local First Nation (Mi'kmaq) food and culture. We used acoustic telemetry and habitat mapping, combined with local Mi'kmaw knowledge, to document the movements and habitat use of adult lobsters within a section of the Lake. Movement patterns of acoustically tagged individual lobsters were analyzed with both resource selection functions and integrated step selection functions using data obtained from a high-resolution VEMCO Positioning System within a restricted bay in the Bras d'Or Lake. The resource selection function suggested stronger selections of substrates that contained a combination of soft and hard sediments. While the integrated step selection functions found substantial individual variability in habitat selections, there was a trend for lobsters to exhibit more resident behaviour on the combined soft/hard substrates despite the fact these sediments provided little in the way of obvious shelters for the animals. Adult lobsters at this site have very little risk of predation, which presumably allows them to freely exhibit exploratory behaviours and reduce their association with substrates that provide shelters.

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Interspecific interactions are highly relevant in the potential transmission of shared pathogens in multi-host systems. In recent decades, several technologies have been developed to study pathogen transmission, such as proximity loggers, GPS tracking devices and/or camera traps. Despite the diversity of methods aimed at detecting contacts, the analysis of transmission risk is often reduced to contact rates and the probability of transmission given the contact. However, the latter process is continuous over time and unique for each contact, and is influenced by the characteristics of the contact and the pathogen's relationship with both the host and the environment. Our objective was to assess whether a more comprehensive approach, using a movement-based model which assigns a unique transmission risk to each contact by decomposing transmission into contact formation, contact duration and host characteristics, could reveal disease transmission dynamics that are not detected with more traditional approaches. The model was built from GPS-collar data from two management systems in Spain where animal tuberculosis (TB) circulates: a national park with extensively reared endemic cattle, and an area with extensive free-range pigs and cattle farms. In addition, we evaluated the effect of the GPS device fix rate on the performance of the model. Different transmission dynamics were identified between both management systems. Considering the specific conditions under which each contact occurs (i.e. whether the contact is direct or indirect, its duration, the hosts characteristics, the environmental conditions, etc.) resulted in the identification of different transmission dynamics compared to using only contact rates. We found that fix intervals greater than 30 min in the GPS tracking data resulted in missed interactions, and intervals greater than 2 h may be insufficient for epidemiological purposes. Our study shows that neglecting the conditions under which each contact occurs may result in a misidentification of the real role of each species in disease transmission. This study describes a clear and repeatable framework to study pathogen transmission from GPS data and provides further insights to understand how TB is maintained in multi-host systems in Mediterranean environments.

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Gulls commonly rely on human-generated waste as their primary food source, contributing to the spread of antibiotic-resistant bacteria and their resistance genes, both locally and globally. Our understanding of this process remains incomplete, particularly in relation to its potential interaction with surrounding soil and water. We studied the lesser black-backed gull, Larus fuscus, as a model to examine the spatial variation of faecal bacterial communities, antibiotic resistance genes (ARGs), and mobile genetic elements (MGEs) and its relationship with the surrounding water and soil. We conducted sampling campaigns within a connectivity network of different flocks of gulls moving across functional units (FUs), each of which represents a module of highly interconnected patches of habitats used for roosting and feeding. The FUs vary in habitat use, with some gulls using more polluted sites (notably landfills), while others prefer more natural environments (e.g., wetlands or beaches). Faecal bacterial communities in gulls from flocks that visit and spend more time in landfills exhibited higher richness and diversity. The faecal microbiota showed a high compositional overlap with bacterial communities in soil. The overlap was greater when compared to landfill (11%) than to wetland soils (6%), and much lower when compared to bacterial communities in surrounding water (2% and 1% for landfill and wetland water, respectively). The relative abundance of ARGs and MGEs were similar between FUs, with variations observed only for specific families of ARGs and MGEs. When exploring the faecal carriage of ARGs and MGEs in bird faeces relative to soil and water compartments, gull faeces were enriched in ARGs classified as High-Risk. Our results shed light on the complex dynamics of antibiotic resistance spread in wild bird populations, providing insights into the interactions among gull movement and feeding behavior, habitat characteristics, and the dissemination of antibiotic resistance determinants across environmental reservoirs.

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Migratory birds may either upregulate their immune system during migration as they might encounter novel pathogens or downregulate their immune system as a consequence of trade-offs with the resource costs of migration. Support for the latter comes not least from a study that reports a positive correlation in autumn migrating birds between fuel stores and parameters of innate and acquired immune function, that is, energy-exhausted migrants appear to have lowered immune function. However, to our knowledge, no study has tested whether this pattern exists in spring migrating birds, which may face other trade-offs than autumn migrants. Here, we investigate if in spring there is a relationship between fuel stores and microbial-killing ability, a measure of innate immune function, and total immunoglobulin (IgY), a measure of acquired immune function, in four migrating bird species: chaffinches (Fringilla coelebs), dunnocks (Prunella modularis), song thrushes (Turdus philomelos) and northern wheatears (Oenanthe oenanthe). Our findings indicate no significant correlation between fuel stores and either microbial killing ability or IgY levels when considering all species collectively. When analysing species separately, we found a significant negative correlation between fuel stores and microbial-killing ability in chaffinches and a positive correlation between fuel stores and IgY levels in wheatears. In song thrushes, but not in any of the other species, there was a significant negative correlation between relative arrival date and microbial-killing ability and between arrival date and IgY levels. Sex did not affect immune function in any of the species. Our study suggests that the relationship between immune function and fuel stores may be different during spring migration compared to autumn migration. Differences in the speed of migration or pathogen pressure may result in different outcomes of the resource trade-off between investment in immune function and migration among the seasons.

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Understanding how animals move and use space within an environment is vital for the development and implementation of effective management actions. Within airfield environments, animal movement can present a substantial risk to aircraft, resulting in wildlife-aircraft collisions (strikes) if animals enter into the manoeuvring areas of the airfield, namely the runways, taxiways and areas that connect the two (hereafter collectively referred to as 'tarmacked areas'). However, reliable ecological data to inform management decisions can be difficult to obtain in such environments, due to access restrictions. Here, we present the first GPS data describing the movement ecology and spatial use of mammals on an airfield - Irish hare (Lepus timidus hibernicus), at Dublin International Airport - through the deployment of five GPS collars. A total of 4571 tarmacked area interactions were recorded between December 2021 and August 2022, with all five hares engaging with tarmacked areas. Between December and August, the highest number of interactions were recorded for the month of April (n = 1073), followed by March (n = 703). There was a mean of 4.3 (range: 0-65) interactions with tarmacked areas, per hare, per day throughout the study period. Hares most frequently engaged with tarmacked areas between 05:00 and 07:59, with some seasonal variation. The greatest cumulative distance moved per month was observed in May (505 km) and April (503 km). We identified that the average home range size of collared hares was 2.8 km2 (±SD 0.1 km2), based on 95% Kernel Utilisation Distribution. Furthermore, we demonstrate that the hares incorporate tarmacked area habitat types into their home ranges with up to 13% of one individual's movements incorporating these areas. Our study demonstrates the suitability of GPS tracking devices for studying the movement ecology of high-risk mammal species at airfields in order to inform airside management practices.

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Recent evidence suggests that individuals differ in foraging tactics and this variation is often linked to an individual's behavioural type (BT). Yet, while foraging typically comprises a series of search and handling steps, empirical investigations have rarely considered BT-dependent effects across multiple stages of the foraging process, particularly in natural settings. In our long-term sleepy lizard (Tiliqua rugosa) study system, individuals exhibit behavioural consistency in boldness (measured as an individual's willingness to approach a novel food item in the presence of a threat) and aggressiveness (measured as an individual's response to an 'attack' by a conspecific dummy). These BTs are only weakly correlated and have previously been shown to have interactive effects on lizard space use and movement, suggesting that they could also affect lizard foraging performance, particularly in their search behaviour for food. To investigate how lizards' BTs affect their foraging process in the wild, we supplemented food in 123 patches across a 120-ha study site with three food abundance treatments (high, low and no-food controls). Patches were replenished twice a week over the species' entire spring activity season and feeding behaviours were quantified with camera traps at these patches. We tracked lizards using GPS to determine their home range (HR) size and repeatedly assayed their aggressiveness and boldness in designated assays. We hypothesised that bolder lizards would be more efficient foragers while aggressive ones would be less attentive to the quality of foraging patches. We found an interactive BT effect on overall foraging performance. Individuals that were both bold and aggressive ate the highest number of food items from the foraging array. Further dissection of the foraging process showed that aggressive lizards in general ate the fewest food items in part because they visited foraging patches less regularly, and because they discriminated less between high and low-quality patches when revisiting them. Bolder lizards, in contrast, ate more tomatoes because they visited foraging patches more regularly, and ate a higher proportion of the available tomatoes at patches during visits. Our study demonstrates that BTs can interact to affect different search and handling components of the foraging process, leading to within-population variation in foraging success. Given that individual differences in foraging and movement will influence social and ecological interactions, our results highlight the potential role of BT's in shaping individual fitness strategies and population dynamics.

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In autumn 1950 David and Elizabeth Lack chanced upon a huge migration of insects and birds flying through the Pyrenean Pass of Bujaruelo, from France into Spain, later describing the spectacle as combining both grandeur and novelty. The intervening years have seen many changes to land use and climate, posing the question as to the current status of this migratory phenomenon. In addition, a lack of quantitative data has prevented insights into the ecological impact of this mass insect migration and the factors that may influence it. To address this, we revisited the site in autumn over a 4 year period and systematically monitored abundance and species composition of diurnal insect migrants. We estimate an annual mean of 17.1 million day-flying insect migrants from five orders (Diptera, Hymenoptera, Hemiptera, Lepidoptera and Odonata) moving south, with observations of southward 'mass migration' events associated with warmer temperatures, the presence of a headwind, sunlight, low windspeed and low rainfall. Diptera dominated the migratory assemblage, and annual numbers varied by more than fourfold. Numbers at this single site hint at the likely billions of insects crossing the entire Pyrenean mountain range each year, and we highlight the importance of this route for seasonal insect migrants.

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As a central topic in Behavioral Ecology, animal space use involves dynamic responses to social and ecological factors. We collared 22 rhesus macaques (Macaca mulatta) from six groups on Neilingding Island, China, and collected 80,625 hourly fixes over a year. Using this high-resolution location data set, we quantified the macaques' space use at the individual level and tested the ecological constraints model while considering various environmental and human interfering factors. As predicted by the ecological constraints model, macaques in larger groups had longer daily path lengths (DPLs) and larger home ranges. We found an inverted U-shape relationship between mean daily temperatures and DPLs, indicating that macaques traveled farther on mild temperature days, while they decreased DPLs when temperatures were too high or too low. Anthropogenic food subsidies were positively correlated to DPLs, while the effect of rainfall was negative. Macaques decreased their DPLs and core areas when more flowers and less leaves were available, suggesting that macaques shifted their space use patterns to adapt to the seasonal differences in food resources. By applying GPS collars on a large number of individuals living on a small island, we gained valuable insights into within-group exploitation competition in wild rhesus macaques.

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To conserve wide-ranging species in degraded landscapes, it is essential to understand how the behavior of animals changes in relation to the degree and composition of modification. Evidence suggests that large inter-individual variation exists in the propensity for use of degraded areas and may be driven by both behavioral and landscape factors. The use of cultivated lands by wildlife is of particular interest, given the importance of reducing human-wildlife conflicts and understanding how such areas can function as biodiversity buffers. African elephant space use can be highly influenced by human activity and the degree to which individuals crop-raid. We analyzed GPS data from 56 free-ranging elephants in the Serengeti-Mara Ecosystem using resource selection functions (RSFs) to assess how crop use may drive patterns of resource selection and space use within a population. We quantified drivers of similarity in resource selection across individuals using proximity analysis of individual RSF coefficients derived from random forest models. We found wide variation in RSF coefficient values between individuals indicating strongly differentiated resource selection strategies. Proximity assessment indicated the degree of crop use in the dry season, individual repeatability, and time spent in unprotected areas drove similarity in resource selection patterns. Crop selection was also spatially structured in relation to agricultural fragmentation. In areas with low fragmentation, elephants spent less time in crops and selected most strongly for crops further from protected area boundaries, but in areas of high fragmentation, elephants spent twice as much time in crops and selected most strongly for crops closer to the protected area boundary. Our results highlight how individual differences and landscape structure can shape use of agricultural landscapes. We discuss our findings in respect to the conservation challenges of human-elephant conflict and incorporating behavioral variation into human-wildlife coexistence efforts.

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Background: Studying how the bull sharks aggregate and how they can be driven by life history traits such as reproduction, prey availability, predator avoidance and social interaction in a National Park such as Cabo Pulmo, is key to understand and protect the species. Methods: The occurrence variability of 32 bull sharks tracked with passive acoustic telemetry were investigated via a hierarchical logistic regression model, with inference conducted in a Bayesian framework, comparing sex, and their response to temperature and chlorophyll. Results: Based on the fitted model, occurrence probability varied by sex and length. Juvenile females had the highest values, whereas adult males the lowest. A strong seasonality or day of the year was recorded, where sharks were generally absent during September-November. However, some sharks did not show the common pattern, being detected just for a short period. This is one of the first studies where the Bayesian framework is used to study passive acoustic telemetry proving the potential to be used in further studies.

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Human conflicts can have impacts on wildlife, from direct mortality and environmental damage to the displacement of people, changing institutional dynamics and altering economies.1,2,3 Extreme anthropogenic disturbances related to conflict may act as a barrier to migrating birds and increase the energetic costs of migration.4 On February 24th, 2022, the Russian Federation invaded Ukraine, with targeted attacks on Kyiv and the eastern regions.5 By March 3rd, when the first of 19 tagged Greater Spotted Eagles entered Ukraine on migration, the conflict had spread to most major cities, including parts of western Ukraine.6 We quantified how conflict impacted the migratory behavior of this species using GPS tracks and conflict data from the Armed Conflict Location and Event Data (ACLED) project7,8 in a quasi-experimental before-after control-impact design, accounting for meteorological conditions. Migrating eagles were exposed to conflict events along their migration through Ukraine and exhibited different behavior compared with previous years, using fewer stopover sites and making large route deviations. This delayed their arrival to the breeding grounds and likely increased the energetic cost of migration, with sublethal fitness effects. Our findings provide a rare window into how human conflicts affect animal behavior and highlight the potential impacts of exposure to conflict events or other extreme anthropogenic disturbances on wildlife.

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The common cutworm, Spodoptera litura (F.), feeds on a wide variety of food and cash crops and is one of the most widespread and destructive agricultural pests worldwide. Migration is the biological basis of its regional population outbreaks but the seasonal movement of this pest between east and south Asia regions remains unknown. In this study, searchlight traps were used to monitor the seasonal migration of S. litura from 2019 to 2023 in Ruili City (Yunnan, China), located along the insect migratory route between China and the south Asia region. The results showed that migratory activity could occur throughout the year, with the main periods found in spring (April-May) and autumn (October-December). The ovarian development and mating status of the trapped females indicated that most individuals were in the middle or late stages of migration and that Ruili City was located in the transit area of the long-distance migration of the pest. In the migration trajectory simulation, populations of S. litura moved from northeast India, Bangladesh, and northern Myanmar to southwestern China along the southern margin of the Himalayas in spring and returned to the south Asia region in autumn. Our findings clarify the seasonal migration patterns of S. litura in China and South Asia and facilitate the development of regional cross-border monitoring and management systems for this pest.

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Recent proliferation of GPS technology has transformed animal movement research. Yet, time-series data from this recent technology rarely span beyond a decade, constraining longitudinal research. Long-term field sites hold valuable historic animal location records, including hand-drawn maps and semantic descriptions. Here, we introduce a generalised workflow for converting such records into reliable location data to estimate home ranges, using 30 years of sleep-site data from 11 white-faced capuchin (Cebus imitator) groups in Costa Rica. Our findings illustrate that historic sleep locations can reliably recover home range size and geometry. We showcase the opportunity our approach presents to resolve open questions that can only be addressed with very long-term data, examining how home ranges are affected by climate cycles and demographic change. We urge researchers to translate historical records into usable movement data before this knowledge is lost; it is essential to understanding how animals are responding to our changing world.

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