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PURPOSE: This study was designed to compare the effects of mental load, caused by concurrent auditory tasks, on attended and non-attended visual stimuli in older and younger adults. METHODS: Participants performed a visual orientation discrimination task involving two spatially separated Gabor patches of 4 cycles/degree and 55% contrast. Participants received either a valid-cue, invalid-cue or a neutral-cue for the patch whose orientation they were required to determine. An auditory n-back task was performed simultaneously to impose mental load. Repeated-measures ANOVA was used for investigation of main effects and interactions of ageing, mental load and attention condition on orientation discrimination. RESULTS: A total of 27 younger (mean age ± SD, 22.6 ± 1.3 years) and 23 older adults (54.7 ± 4.3 years) participated in the study. There was a significant effect of age (p = 0.01) and mental load (p < 0.001) on the proportion of correct orientation discrimination responses. Attentional condition significantly affected the proportion of correct responses (p = 0.02), but there was no significant interaction between attention, mental load and age group (p = 0.85). There was no overall difference in the proportion of no responses (the proportion of trials in which the participants failed to respond) between the two age groups (p = 0.53) nor on the overall effect of attention on the proportion of no responses (p = 0.25). There was, however, a significant effect of mental load on the proportion of no responses (p = 0.002). CONCLUSION: Although mental load reduced performance equally for both age groups and for all attentional conditions, older adults had poorer overall performance. Therefore, a given mental load is more likely to drive older observers to unacceptable levels of task performance.

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This study aimed to quantify the influence of the playing surface on workload-related variables (i.e., external load, Rate of perceived exertion (RPE), and mental load) in training sessions with a Spanish professional soccer team. Twenty professional male players from the same soccer team were involved. A total of thirty training sessions related to the preseason period were included. All the players completed training sessions on three playing surfaces: natural turf of poor quality, natural turf of high quality, and third-generation artificial turf. Monitoring during sessions involved assessing internal load (i.e., RPE and mental load) via self-reported questionnaires, and external load using Global Positioning System devices. Linear mixed models showed that RPE was significantly higher on natural turf of high quality than on natural turf of poor quality (p < 0.001). Total distance, relative total distance, the number of accelerations, decelerations, and high metabolic load distance were significantly lower on third-generation artificial turf compared to natural turf of poor quality (p < 0.001) and high quality (p < 0.001). In addition, high-speed running, sprint running distances, and the number of sprints reached higher values on third-generation artificial turf compared to the other two playing surfaces. These findings highlight the need for coaches to consider the type of training surface in soccer to optimize training load planning and prevent injuries.

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Mental load is a major cause of human-induced accidents. In this study, an explosive impact sensitivity experiment was used to induce mental load. A combination of subjective questionnaires and objective prospective time-distance tests were used to judge whether subjects experienced mental load. Four indicators, namely, ß, γ, mean pupil diameter, and fixation time were selected by statistical analysis and PCA for the construction of a mental load assessment model. The study found that the occipital lobe was the most sensitive to mental load, especially ß and γ bands. Lastly, it was found that subjects showed different degrees of mental load for the same mental load induction task. The results of the study are applicable to the evaluation and monitoring of the mental characteristics of workers and provide a scientific basis for adjusting the mental load of workers over time to reduce the rate of accidents and enhance production efficiency.

Mental load is the main cause of human-induced accidents. This study used an explosive impact sensitivity experiment to induce mental load in subjects. We found that the mean pupil diameter and fixation time, as well as the beta and gamma bands in the occipital lobe were most sensitive to mental load.

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Introduction: The mental load caused by simultaneous multitasking can affect visual information processing and reduce its ability. This study investigated the effect of mental load caused by cognitive tasks simultaneously with visual task on the number of active voxels in the visual cortex. Methods: This study recruited 22 individuals with a mean age of 24.72 ± 5.47 years. 3-Tesla functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) was used to examine the functions of the visual cortex and amygdala region during three different task conditions: visual task alone, visual task with an auditory n-back task, and visual task with an arithmetic task. The visual stimuli consisted of Gabor patches with a contrast of 55% at spatial frequencies of 0.25, 4, and 9 cycles per degree (cpd). These were presented in three trials of eight blocks with a stimulation time of 12 sec and a rest time of 14 sec. Results: Activated brain voxels in the primary, secondary, and associated visual cortex areas were reduced in response to the mental load imposed by the n-back and arithmetic tasks. This reduction was greater for a spatial frequency of 0.25 cpd in the n-back task condition and spatial frequency of 9 cpd in the arithmetic task condition. In addition, the amygdala was stimulated in 2-back task and arithmetic task conditions. Conclusions: This study revealed a decline in the number of activated voxels of the visual cortex due to the mental load caused by simultaneous cognitive tasks, confirming the findings of previous psychophysical studies.

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The high cognitive and/or emotional demands of competition can lead to a state of mental fatigue which has shown to be detrimental to soccer performance. However, there is a need to further understand the true mental demands of soccer players. The aim of the present study was to analyze the influence of motivation and the perceived requirements of the next match on mental fatigue perceived by soccer players over the passing of a season. The combined effect of both variables on the perception of mental fatigue, as well as the influence of the time of the season on perceived mental fatigue, were also analyzed. Twenty-six semi-professional Spanish male players (M = 26.31 ± 5.18 years) participated in the present study, conducted during the 2020-2021 season. Perceived mental fatigue and motivation were measured at each training session. The perceived requirements of the next match were also measured in each of the competitive weeks. Linear mixed models were run with R Studio to examine the influence of motivation and the perceived difficulty of the next match on perceived mental fatigue, the combined effect of both variables on perceived mental fatigue, and the influence of the passing of the season on perceived mental fatigue. The results showed a negative and significant influence of motivation on perceived mental fatigue (p < 0.001) and a positive and significant influence of the perceived requirements of the next match on perceived mental fatigue (p < 0.001). Regarding the combined effect, there was a positive and significant effect (p < 0.01) of the perceived difficulty of the next match on the relation between motivation and perceived mental fatigue. A negative influence of season passage on perceived mental fatigue levels was found (p < 0.001). We recommended coaches to consider using the most motivating training tasks when higher next-match requirements are perceived and to be careful with avoidance strategies for mental fatigue, especially at the beginning of the season.

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Little is known about mental load in people with diabetes and associations with demographic, clinical, and treatment characteristics, such as the use of diabetes technologies. To explore perceived mental load, 503 adults with diabetes answered the one-item survey "How much time (in minutes) would you spontaneously estimate that you spend each day thinking about your diabetes?" Mental load estimations varied widely within the sample and between subgroups. Perceived mental load was higher in type 1 diabetes than in type 2 diabetes, higher in women than in men and increased with treatment intensity (ie, insulin therapy, technology use) and the number of mental disorders. Further research may explore associations with diabetes-related distress and determine whether (perceived) mental load has relevance in technology use.

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This study analyses the experiences of working from home (WfH) during the COVID-19 pandemic and the impact it has on working mothers through the lens of "mental load." Remote study, often lauded as a way to reduce work/life conflicts, can bring new multifaceted challenges for working mothers and, as this study shows, suddenly shifting to remote work led to the boundaries among work, care, and domestic labour becoming blurred. The data used here are from narrative interviews collected as part of the RESpondIng to outbreakS through co-creaTIve inclusive equality stRatEgies (RESISTIRÉ) Horizon 2020 project, which analyses the impact of COVID-19 policies on gendered inequalities across the EU27 and Türkiye, Serbia, UK, and Iceland. We draw on 12 narratives from working mothers in Austria, Bulgaria, Czechia, Denmark, Ireland, Estonia, Greece, Portugal, Netherlands, the United Kingdom, and Slovakia. Employing thematic analysis, the analysis of these narratives, illuminates the challenges and opportunities of WfH and highlights its impact on mental load. While adding to the research on WfH and working mothers, the analysis also illustrates the lessons to be taken forward as well as underscoring the importance of mental load both theoretically and empirically.

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Experiences of virtual reality (VR) can easily break if the method of evaluating subjective user states is intrusive. Behavioral measures are increasingly used to avoid this problem. One such measure is eye tracking, which recently became more standard in VR and is often used for content-dependent analyses. This research is an endeavor to utilize content-independent eye metrics, such as pupil size and blinks, for identifying mental load in VR users. We generated mental load independently from visuals through auditory stimuli. We also defined and measured a new eye metric, focus offset, which seeks to measure the phenomenon of "staring into the distance" without focusing on a specific surface. In the experiment, VR-experienced participants listened to two native and two foreign language stimuli inside a virtual phone booth. The results show that with increasing mental load, relative pupil size on average increased 0.512 SDs (0.118 mm), with 57% reduced variance. To a lesser extent, mental load led to fewer fixations, less voluntary gazing at distracting content, and a larger focus offset as if looking through surfaces (about 0.343 SDs, 5.10 cm). These results are in agreement with previous studies. Overall, we encourage further research on content-independent eye metrics, and we hope that hardware and algorithms will be developed in the future to further increase tracking stability.

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Driving safety strongly depends on the driver's mental states and attention to the driving situation. Previous studies demonstrate a clear relationship between EEG measures and mental states, such as alertness and drowsiness, but often only map their mental state for a longer period of time. In this driving simulation study, we exploit the high temporal resolution of the EEG to capture fine-grained modulations in cognitive processes occurring before and after eye activity in the form of saccades, fixations, and eye blinks. A total of 15 subjects drove through an approximately 50-km course consisting of highway, country road, and urban passages. Based on the ratio of brain oscillatory alpha and theta activity, the total distance was classified into 10-m-long sections with low, medium, and high task loads. Blink-evoked and fixation-evoked event-related potentials, spectral perturbations, and lateralizations were analyzed as neuro-cognitive correlates of cognition and attention. Depending on EEG-based estimation of task load, these measures showed distinct patterns associated with driving behavior parameters such as speed and steering acceleration and represent a temporally highly resolved image of specific cognitive processes during driving. In future applications, combinations of these EEG measures could form the basis for driver warning systems which increase overall driving safety by considering rapid fluctuations in driver's attention and mental states.

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Mental fatigue has shown to be one of the root causes of decreased productivity and overall cognitive performance, by decreasing an individual's ability to inhibit responses, process information and concentrate. The effects of mental fatigue have led to occupational errors and motorway accidents. Early detection of mental fatigue can prevent the escalation of symptoms that may lead to chronic fatigue syndrome and other disorders. To date, in clinical settings, the assessment of mental fatigue and stress is done through self-reported questionnaires. The validity of these questionnaires is questionable, as they are highly subjective measurement tools and are not immune to response biases. This review examines the wider presence of mental fatigue in the general population and critically compares its various detection techniques (i.e., self-reporting questionnaires, heart rate variability, salivary cortisol levels, electroencephalogram, and saccadic eye movements). The ability of these detection tools to assess inhibition responses (which are sensitive enough to be manifested in a fatigue state) is specifically evaluated for a reliable marker in identifying mentally fatigued individuals. In laboratory settings, antisaccade tasks have been long used to assess inhibitory control and this technique can potentially serve as the most promising assessment tool to objectively detect mental fatigue. However, more studies need to be conducted in the future to validate and correlate this assessment with other existing measures of mental fatigue detection. This review is intended for, but not limited to, mental health professionals, digital health scientists, vision researchers, and behavioral scientists.

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Although much is known of the observable physical tasks associated with household management and child rearing, there is scant understanding of the less visible tasks that are just as critical. Grounding our research in the extant literature, the broader lay discussion, as well as our own qualitative research, we define, conceptualize, and operationalize this construct, which we label as "invisible family load." Using a mixed method, five-study approach, we offer a comprehensive, multidimensional definition and provide a nine-item, empirically validated scale to measure its component parts-managerial, cognitive, and emotional family load. In addition, we investigate gender differences and find, as expected, that women report higher levels of each dimension. We also examine the implications of invisible family load for employee health, well-being, and job attitudes, as well as family-to-work spillover. Although we substantiated some significant negative consequences, contrary to the popular view that consequences of invisible family load are uniformly negative, our results show some potential benefits. Even after accounting for conscientiousness and neuroticism, managerial family load related to greater family-work enrichment, and cognitive family load related to greater family satisfaction and job performance. Yet, emotional family load had uniformly negative potential consequences including greater family-to-work conflict, sleep problems, family and job exhaustion, and lower life and family satisfaction. Our research sets the stage for scholars to forge a path forward to enhance understanding of this phenomenon and its implications for individuals, their families, and the organizations for which they work. Supplementary Information: The online version contains supplementary material available at 10.1007/s10869-023-09887-7.

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Objective: To explore the characteristics and rules of blood pressure changes in oceanauts during simulated operation of manipulator and troubleshooting tasks with different difficulty. Methods: In July 2020, 8 deep-sea manned submersible oceanauts, 6 males and 2 females, were selected as objects. In the 1∶1 model of Jiaolong deep-sea manned submersible, the oceanauts performed manipulator operation tasks and troubleshooting tasks with different difficulties, measured the continuous blood pressure of the oceanauts, filled in the NASA Task Load Index (NASA-TLX scale) after the completion of a single mission, and the changes of systolic pressure (SBP), diastolic pressure (DBP), mean arterial pressure (MAP) and mental workload were analyzed. Results: In a single task, the SBP, DBP and MAP of the oceanauts increased first and then decreased. The blood pressure values at the third minute were significantly lower than those at the first minute (P<0.01), and those at the fifth minute were significantly higher than those at the third minute (P<0.01). When performing the same task, compared with the quiet state, SBP, DBP and MAP increased when the oceanauts performed low difficulty, high difficulty, high difficulty+2-back manipulator operation task and troubleshooting task (P<0.05). When the task difficulty was the same, the SBP and MAP of oceanauts performing manipulator operation tasks were higher than those of oceanauts performing troubleshooting tasks (P<0.05). Compared with low difficulty tasks, the scores of NASA-TLX scale for oceanauts performing high difficulty manipulator operationtasks were significantly higher (P<0.05). Compared with the low difficulty task and high difficulty task, the scale score of the high difficulty+2-back troubleshooting task was significantly higher (P<0.05). When the task difficulty was the same, the scale scores of low difficulty and high difficulty manipulator operation tasks were significantly higher than those of troubleshooting tasks (P<0.05). SBP, DBP, MAP of No. 1, No. 3, No. 4, No. 5, and No. 7 oceanauts (all of whom had 6 years of diving) were positively correlated with NASA-TLX scale scores (r>0.8, P<0.05) . Conclusion: In the process of manned deep-sea diving, when the oceanauts perform manipulator operation tasks and troubleshooting tasks, with the increase of task difficulty, the mental load of oceanauts increases, and the blood pressure index increases significantly in a short time. At the same time, improving the proficiency of operation can reduce the variation range of blood pressure indexes. Blood pressure can be used as an effective reference to evaluate the difficulty of operation and guide scientific training.

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BACKGROUND: Attentional resource allocation during sports practice is associated with the players' perceived mental load. However, few ecological studies address this problem by considering the players' characteristics (e.g., practice experience, skill and cognition). Therefore, this study aimed to analyse the dose-response effect of two different types of practice, each with different learning objectives, on mental load and motor performance by using a linear mixed model analysis. METHOD: Forty-four university students (age 20.36 ± 3.13 years) participated in this study. Two sessions were conducted, one based on a standard rules 1 × 1 basketball situation ("practice to maintain") and one with motor, temporal and spatial restrictions in 1 × 1 tasks ("practice to learn"). RESULTS: "Practice to learn" produced a higher perceived mental load (NASA-TLX scale) and a worse performance than "practice to maintain", but was moderated by experience and inhibition (p = 0.001). The same happens in the most demanding restriction (i.e., temporal, p < 0.0001). CONCLUSION: The results showed that increasing the difficulty of 1 × 1 situations through restrictions harmed the player's performance and increased their perceived mental load. These effects were moderated by previous basketball experience and the player's inhibition capacity, so the difficulty adjustment should be based on the athletes themselves.

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Providing accurate and timely public health information is an ongoing challenge for public health officials. The COVID-19 pandemic has exacerbated such challenges and presented unique difficulties in providing public health information, through the parallel rise of an "infodemic" of mis/dis-information. Understanding why individuals select, use and change their public health information seeking behaviors around COVID-19, and the relationship of these decisions relative to participant characteristics, is therefore an important step in understanding and responding to infodemics. This study used a qualitative survey (n = 255) and free-text qualitative questions to ask (1) Why participants use an information source, (2) How participants used an information source, and (3) How information seeking behavior has changed since the COVID-19 pandemic. Participants were primarily women, born in Australia, with de-facto/married relationships, without children at home, with university/college qualifications, and employed full-time or unemployed/retired. Most participants identified "easiness" and "immediacy" as reasons why they chose and used information, with sources primarily used for planning, communication, and decision making. A minority of participants changed their information seeking behavior since the COVID-19 pandemic. Those who did change, desired more immediate and accurate information. Emergent themes of care and anxiety were also noted, raising questions around the impact of mental load and cognitive labor in some female populations. Women may be suffering from increased cognitive labor and a gendering of public health information seeking behavior in the context of COVID-19. The impact of these attributes on women requires greater empirical research and consideration amongst front line practitioners and public health professionals.

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INTRODUCTION: This pilot study aimed to test the feasibility of conducting a randomized controlled trial to examine how simulation environments (in situ versus laboratory) influence teamwork skills development and cognitive load among novice healthcare trauma professionals in the emergency department. METHOD: Twenty-four novice trauma professionals (nurses, medical residents, respiratory therapists) were assigned to in situ or laboratory simulations. They participated in two 15-minute simulations separated by a 45-minute debriefing on teamwork. After each simulation, they completed validated teamwork and cognitive load questionnaires. All simulations were video recorded to assess teamwork performance by trained external observers. Feasibility measures (e.g., recruitment rate, randomization procedure and intervention implementation) were recorded. Mixed ANOVAs were used to calculate effect sizes. RESULTS: Regarding feasibility, several difficulties were encountered, such as a low recruitment rate and the inability to perform randomization. Outcome results suggest that the simulation environment does not affect novice trauma professionals' teamwork performance and cognitive load (small effect sizes), but a large effect size was observed for perceived learning. CONCLUSION: This study highlights several barriers to conducting a randomized study in the context of interprofessional simulation-based education in the emergency department. Suggestions are made to guide future research in the field.

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The main purpose was to compare by each training the mental load and fatigue reported by semiprofessional soccer players comparing between regular season phase and the play-offs. Fifty-three players (Mage  = 24.59 years) for two teams participated during the 2020/21 season. Mental load was measured with a Likert questionnaire. Mental fatigue was quantified with a Visual Analogue Scale. Four trainings were recorded each week (Monday = MD+1, Wednesday = MD-4, Thursday = MD-3 and Saturday = MD-1), with a competitive match on Sunday across 10 weeks (five dates of regular season - five dates of play-offs). A Linear Mixed Model was performed with R-studio, using the training days and the competitive phase as independent variables. The influence of time played as co-variable was also checked. Results showed MD+1 as the more mentally fatiguing day in both phases, although MD-4 were the training with higher mental load reported (p = 0.001). Comparing phases, mental fatigue was significantly higher during the play-offs (p = 0.037). With regard time played, players that did not usually play showed a decrease in mental load during the play-offs. Then, we recommend coaches to use recovery strategies for mental fatigue, avoid mentally fatiguing tasks close to competition and considerer the time played as a factor which may contribute to individual differences in player mental fatigue.

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BACKGROUND: Virtual learning environments (VLEs) use a virtual environment to support learning activities. VLEs are commonly used to overcome the temporal and spatial restrictions of learning activities held in conventional face-to-face classrooms. In VLEs, students can participate in learning activities using the internet, and teachers can provide assistive learning tools during the process. OBJECTIVE: The purpose of this study was to investigate the relationships among nursing students' mental load, cognitive load, and affective learning outcomes in terms of their willingness to serve older adults in an interaction-based educational virtual reality (VR) learning environment. METHODS: This study used a cross-sectional method. A total of 130 students participated in interaction-based VR learning and completed related questionnaires. Descriptive and inferential statistics and stepwise regression for data analysis were used. RESULTS: The research results revealed that in the dimension of willingness to use VR learning materials, perceived usefulness received the highest score (mean 4.42, SD 0.45). In the dimension of nursing ability, students scored the highest in information management and application ability to care for case patients (mean 4.35, SD 0.54). Correlation analysis revealed that cognitive load during learning and willingness to serve older adults were negatively correlated, whereas willingness to use VR learning materials was positively correlated with nursing ability and willingness to serve older adults. Analyzing the regression coefficients of predictor variables revealed that willingness to use VR learning materials (ß=.23; t2=2.89, P=.005) and cognitive load during learning (ß=-.35; t2=-.4.30, P<.001) were predictive factors of nursing students' willingness to serve older adults. CONCLUSIONS: This study demonstrated that students' willingness to use VR learning materials and their cognitive load during learning affected their willingness to care for older adults. Therefore, the components of mental or cognitive load generate inconsistent predictive effects on affective variables and willingness to serve older adults.

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Objective: To explore the characteristics and rules of blood pressure changes in oceanauts during simulated operation of manipulator and troubleshooting tasks with different difficulty. Methods: In July 2020, 8 deep-sea manned submersible oceanauts, 6 males and 2 females, were selected as objects. In the 1∶1 model of Jiaolong deep-sea manned submersible, the oceanauts performed manipulator operation tasks and troubleshooting tasks with different difficulties, measured the continuous blood pressure of the oceanauts, filled in the NASA Task Load Index (NASA-TLX scale) after the completion of a single mission, and the changes of systolic pressure (SBP), diastolic pressure (DBP), mean arterial pressure (MAP) and mental workload were analyzed. Results: In a single task, the SBP, DBP and MAP of the oceanauts increased first and then decreased. The blood pressure values at the third minute were significantly lower than those at the first minute (P<0.01), and those at the fifth minute were significantly higher than those at the third minute (P<0.01). When performing the same task, compared with the quiet state, SBP, DBP and MAP increased when the oceanauts performed low difficulty, high difficulty, high difficulty+2-back manipulator operation task and troubleshooting task (P<0.05). When the task difficulty was the same, the SBP and MAP of oceanauts performing manipulator operation tasks were higher than those of oceanauts performing troubleshooting tasks (P<0.05). Compared with low difficulty tasks, the scores of NASA-TLX scale for oceanauts performing high difficulty manipulator operationtasks were significantly higher (P<0.05). Compared with the low difficulty task and high difficulty task, the scale score of the high difficulty+2-back troubleshooting task was significantly higher (P<0.05). When the task difficulty was the same, the scale scores of low difficulty and high difficulty manipulator operation tasks were significantly higher than those of troubleshooting tasks (P<0.05). SBP, DBP, MAP of No. 1, No. 3, No. 4, No. 5, and No. 7 oceanauts (all of whom had 6 years of diving) were positively correlated with NASA-TLX scale scores (r>0.8, P<0.05) . Conclusion: In the process of manned deep-sea diving, when the oceanauts perform manipulator operation tasks and troubleshooting tasks, with the increase of task difficulty, the mental load of oceanauts increases, and the blood pressure index increases significantly in a short time. At the same time, improving the proficiency of operation can reduce the variation range of blood pressure indexes. Blood pressure can be used as an effective reference to evaluate the difficulty of operation and guide scientific training.

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The association Les Blouses roses intervenes in many hospitals in France, especially at the bedside of hospitalized children. It tries to bring them various animations, fantasy and gaiety in the dark universe of the disease. This is not always an easy task, but it is supported by the will to accompany the young patient and his family against all odds. Chantal Leroy, president of the Les Blouses roses committee in Grenoble (38) for two years, explains how it works.

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The aim of the present study was to investigate the effects of high-intensity interval training (HIIT) exercises, with and without cognitive load, on the accuracy, critical flicker fusion threshold (CFFT), and rating of perceived exertion (RPE) on recreational tennis players. A total of 32 players of tennis at recreational level (25 men and 7 women) were enrolled in this cross-sectional the study. Participants had to perform, randomly, two HIIT sessions. In one of them, cognitive load was induced by conducting an incongruent Stroop during rests. After training accuracy of tennis serve, CFFT, and RPE were measured. Results showed that accuracy after baseline and HIIT without cognitive load were significantly higher than after HIIT with cognitive load. RPE significantly increased (p-value < 0.001) after HIIT sessions in both, with and without cognitive load. However, significant differences were not observed between the two sessions in the RPE (p-value = 0.405). Furthermore, differences were not obtained in the CFFT neither within nor between sessions (p-value > 0.05). Therefore, HIIT with and without cognitive load increased the RPE in recreational tennis players. Furthermore, HIIT sessions with cognitive load significant altered tennis serve accuracy.