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English anatomical terminology has evolved over the long history of anatomical practice, with major influences from ancient Greek, classical Latin, Arabic, and post-classical Latin. Beginning in the nineteenth century, there have been various attempts to standardise and rationalise anatomical language, beginning in 1887, and culminating in the publication in 2019 of the second edition of the Terminologia Anatomica. This paper presents a brief historical overview of the development of anatomical terminology and usage in English, followed by a summary of the results of an anonymised survey of current practices that was sent out by email to anatomy educators at 45 medical schools in the United Kingdom. This is followed by personal reflections by six senior academics and/or clinicians, reviewing their extensive experience of teaching, researching, and communicating the language of anatomy within United Kingdom medical and clinical institutions.

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La presente investigación documental con diseño bibliométrico pretender caracterizar la producción científica del Dr. Hugo Ariel Hernández-Parada, fundador del actual Instituto de Anatomía, Histología y Patología de la Universidad Austral de Chile (UACh). Por medio de la búsqueda electrónica en seis bases de datos se identificaron 42 estudios (41 artículos y 1 tesis), cuyo análisis bibliométrico determinó que su quehacer dentro de la investigación en el campo de la Anatomía Humana estuvo centrado en el estudio del Sistema Nervioso Autónomo, seguida del Sistema Nervioso Periférico, Miología y Anatomía de cabeza y cuello. La mayoría de sus obras fueron realizadas en muestras humanas (fetos), publicadas en idioma español, en revistas chilenas, y como autor principal en 41 de los 42 registros encontrados. Por medio de esta investigación, se pretende recordar y rendir homenaje a este destacado anatomista, cuya obra contribuyó al desarrollo y difusión de la Anatomía Humana en Chile.

SUMMARY: This documentary research via bibliometric design, aims to characterize the scientific contribution of Dr. Hugo Ariel Hernández-Parada, the founder of the current Institute of Anatomy, Histology and Pathology of the Universidad Austral de Chile (UACh). An electronic search was carried out in six databases, 42 studies (41 articles and 1 thesis) were identified. Their bibliometric analysis determined that the work of these research studies in the field of Human Anatomy was focused on the study of the Autonomous Nervous System, followed by the Peripheral Nervous System, Myology and Anatomy of the head and neck. Most of his works were carried out on human samples (fetuses), published in Spanish in Chilean science journals, and as the main author in 41 of the 42 records found. Through this research, it is intended to remember and offer tribute to this outstanding anatomist, whose work contributed to the development and diffusion of human anatomy in Chile.

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This paper discusses the historical context of collaborative research and authorship disputes, exemplified by the complex relationship between Dutch anatomist and physician Gerard L. Blaes and his East-Central European mentee, Daniel Gödtke, during the study of medulla spinalis. The study employs historical analysis to unravel the dynamics of scholarly collaboration, emphasizing the significance of mentorship in scientific progress and the communal nature of knowledge exchange. This historical analysis is based on primary sources and historical records. It underscores Blaes's strategy to circumvent public confrontations regarding the authorship of the seminal work 'Anatome medullae spinalis, et nervorum inde provenientium' (1666). As a teacher, he facilitated his student's participation in a public disputation to avert public authorship conflicts over the book. This ultimately led to the publication of two distinct versions of 'Anatome medullae spinalis.' The first one was co-authored by the mentor and his mentee, while the latter was solely attributed to the mentor. This historical narrative raises essential questions about attributing individual contributions in medical sciences, echoing concerns still pertinent in contemporary academia. Additionally, it makes visible the power dynamics inherent in faculty-students relationships and the potential repercussions of authorship disputes on scholars' reputations. By drawing parallels between historical and modern authorship dilemmas, this study contributes to ongoing discussions on equitable authorship in scientific research and publishing. It not only highlights a historical precedent for the complex dynamics of mentor-mentee collaborations and authorship disputes but also illuminates how these practices continue to influence contemporary academic and publishing customs.

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The present article offers the facial approximation of the mummy of the ancient Egyptian adolescent named Minirdis (ca. 2300 years BP) by means of anatomical analysis of video-images and through a facial approximation protocol implemented on more historical personages. An evaluation of the mummy's endocast is also offered. A potential diagnosis of Sotos syndrome is cautiously considered but its inherent limitations are detailed. Finally, the methodology is presented as a valuable tool both for bio-historical research and for further studies on normal and pathologic morphologies of the cranio-facial district.

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Throughout the nineteenth century, medical schools in both the Northern and Southern regions of the United States required a regular supply of bodies for medical study and experimentation. Physicians and medical students targeted the bodies of African Americans, both freedmen and the enslaved, to meet this demand. Simultaneously, the nation's booming newspaper market became a stage on which debates about the cruelty of slavery and the social consequences of pursuing medical knowledge played out in articles about the dissection of Black bodies. Such stories increased fears about dissection and mistrust towards the medical profession among African American communities, which manifested in riots against physicians, vandalism against medical schools, and corrective responses from African American newspaper editors and journalists. Through an extensive examination of nineteenth-century U.S. newspapers, this article identifies themes evident in the coverage of dissection during this period. Southern newspapers crafted stories of dissection that served the dual purpose of entertaining White readers and humiliating African Americans. This public humiliation fostered what became a popular genre of derogatory and vile humor that reinforced negative and inaccurate racialized stereotypes as well as racist science. Ultimately, such newspaper coverage provoked reactions within Black communities and among antislavery advocates that showcase how people often excluded from practicing medicine themselves viewed issues like medical education. Newspaper rhetoric around these themes amplified tensions between religious and scientific perspectives, reflected differences and similarities between the northern and southern areas of the United States, and fortified racist views in both cultural and scientific contexts.

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La presente revisión narrativa trata de caracterizar como ha sido el proceso de enseñanza de la anatomía en la Universidad Austral de Chile (UACh), presentando una visión histórica desde los inicios de la Universidad a los tiempos actuales y una reflexión sobre el futuro de la Anatomía Humana. Se describen los orígenes del Instituto de Anatomía de la UACh, primeros académicos, logros institucionales, convenios interinstitucionales; además, se detallan los métodos y estrategias educativas utilizadas en la actualidad para la enseñanza anatómica y se presenta una visión panorámica del porvenir como instituto de docencia e investigación en el campo de la Anatomía humana.

SUMMARY: This narrative review tries to characterize how the anatomy teaching process has been carried out at the Universidad Austral de Chile (UACh), presenting a historical vision from the beginnings of the University to the present time and a reflection on the future of Human Anatomy. The origins of the Human Anatomy Institute at the UACh, first academics, institutional achievements, inter-institutional agreements are described; in addition, the educational methods and strategies currently used for anatomical teaching are detailed and a panoramic vision of the future as a teaching and research institute in the field of human anatomy is presented.

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The article represents the translation of chapters of the scientific work «Onomatologia anatomica¼ (1880) by the Austrian anatomist Josef Hyrtl devoted to terminology in the anatomy of the meninges, namely arachnoidea, pia mater, dura mater, meninx.

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Anatole-Félix Le Double was a prominent figure associated with the concept of anatomical variations also including the comprehension of their anthropological and zoological aspects. As an anatomist, Le Double contributed significantly with his major treatise regarding muscles and bony variants. Furthermore, Le Double influenced and popularized paleoanthropology and its relation to anatomy not only in France but in several parts of the world - promoting the idea that anatomical variations are not only surgically and clinically relevant but also have an evolutionary significance. To celebrate 110 years of his passing, this paper aims to explain his trajectory as a young physician to one of the most important figures in how anatomical variants are perceived today.

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Substantivation, the use of an adjective or participle as a noun, is commonly used informally to shorten Latin anatomical terms. Dozens of substantives also appear in the international standard anatomical terminology. Most of these are venerable and familiar as nouns in Latin anatomical terms. Examples of Latin nouns derived directly or indirectly from Greek and Latin adjectives and participles are presented here. Although neologisms are said to enrich languages, careful consideration is required before adding to a technical vocabulary. Terms consisting of a substantive or displaying a substantive as the head noun may be vague to learners and nonspecialists.

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Anatomical collections have been used for centuries for research and teaching purposes. By the example of selected preparations of fetal development from the Ruysch collection (17th-18th centuries) and the Meckel collections (18th-19th century), this article aims to trace the changing purposes, specifics and methods of creating specimens as well as the development of anatomy during that period. The selected specimens are compared and analyzed implementing the historical-critical method. Regarding the appearance of the preparations, we see a transition from the visually aesthetic specimens (Ruysch) to exact ones (Meckel collections). If Ruysch's preparations were compared in his time to works of art, specimens created by three anatomists of the Meckel dynasty were primarily created for teaching and research purposes. However, Ruysch's preparations tracing fetal circulation were scientific discoveries of the time. As for preparations of fetal development from the Meckel collections, we see both specimens of physiological processes already known at that time and experimental ones. Regarding teratology, Ruysch and Meckel the Younger tried to explain malformations, but their anatomical preparations could hardly give answers to the cause of deviations from the norm. The differences between the collections can be explained by the different stages of development of anatomy of the time and by the research interests of the anatomists themselves.

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The article is dedicated to the 350th anniversary of the death of the Dutch anatomist, physiologist, yatrochemist and the greatest physician of the XVII century, Franciscus Sylvius (Franz de le Boe) (1614-1672). His contribution to the study of the structure of the nervous system is characterized, as well as the main scientific discoveries and achievements in building a rational system of medical science and practice. It is stated that eponym «aquaeductus Sylvii¼ was coined by Lorenz Heister in 1717 in his paper «De admiranda cerebelli structura¼.

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The first description and naming of the hippocampus is usually credited to Arantius (c. 1530 - 1589), whose comparison of the swelling inside the temporal horn of the lateral ventricle to a seahorse (hippocampus) or silkworm (bombyx) was published in the 1587 edition of the Anatomicarum Observationum Liber. However, in the 17th century, the term hippocampus was rarely used and its precise anatomy remained a mystery. The 18th century saw the hippocampus referred to as a wide range of animals and divinities. These terminological issues provoked heated discussions in the French Académie Royale des Sciences, culminating in the seminal description of the hippocampus in the 1780s by Félix Vicq d'Azyr (1748-1794). However, it is striking that no hypothesis concerning the function of the hippocampus was proposed, and its link with memory was not established until the mid-20th century.

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The nasopharynx has been understudied relative to neighboring anatomical regions. It is a highly complex, integrated space whose function, development, and evolution remains unclear after nearly 5,000 years of study. Historically, most work on the nasopharynx was done with a focus on adjacent structures. It has most often been mentioned in relation to the middle ear (via the Eustachian tube) in ancient texts and has only later been given a designation as one of three portions of a tripartite pharynx among adult humans. As human dissection became practiced more widely in Renaissance Europe, understanding of the nasopharyngeal boundaries improved. With further advancements in the study of nasopharyngeal development, evolution, and anatomical variation from the 19th century up until the present, this region has been shown to be functionally vital and still complicated to define.

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As elsewhere, the cadavers of Nazi victims were used at the 'Alpenunversität Innsbruck' for the education of medical students. They were also used by members of the Institute of Anatomy and the Institute of Histology for scientific research and publications. In 2018, over 300 drawers were discovered in a laboratory anteroom of the Innsbruck Histological Institute containing around 15,000 histological slides. After a closer examination, 237 slides were found to have human tissues from victims of the 3rd Reich possibly. These 237 slides were produced between May 1938 and March 1944. All 237 slides were digitized, the labels carefully analysed, and some of the victims were identified. Several specimens come from the tissues of three Nazi victims who were executed in Munich-Stadelheim and whose bodies were brought to the Innsbruck Anatomical Institute. From there, the organs were passed on to the Histological Institute Innsbruck. Inscriptions on other slides such as "Cl[ara]. 40", "hing[erichtet]. Clara" or "Hinger[ichtet]. Cl[ara]." prove that the specimens were most likely sent to the Institute by the histologist Max Clara. At this time, Clara was Director of the Leipzig Anatomical Institute and still had close ties to the Innsbruck Institute, where he had been trained. Based on several sources, some Nazi victims could be identified by name; biographical traces complement this identification. Under what political and sociological conditions future generations will look at the crimes of the Nazi dictatorship is not yet foreseeable. As anatomists and scientists, we must be cautious about removing evidence from this terrible time. Therefore, we will bury all slides where relatives wish to do so or where it is clear that Rabbi Polak's "Vienna Protocol" must be applied. However, the remaining slides will be kept safe for eventual further investigation.

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The history of anatomy in Nazi Germany highlights the consequences to humanity when the destructive potentials immanent to all science and medicine are enabled by an anti-democratic, totalitarian regime. Anatomy presents an example of ethical transgressions by scientists and health care professionals that were amplified in the criminal political climate of the Nazi regime. This can happen anywhere, as science is never apolitical. This article gives a short account of anatomy in Nazi Germany, which is followed by an outline of the tangible and intangible legacies from this history, to then discuss implications for anatomy education today. While Jewish and politically dissident anatomists were forced out of their positions and country by the Nazi regime, the majority of the remaining anatomists joined the Nazi party and used bodies of Nazi victims for education and research. Some anatomists even performed deadly human experiments. Patterns and legacies that emerge from this history can be traced into the present and concern research ethics in general and anatomical body procurement specifically. They shed light on current practices and controversies in the anatomical sciences, including anthropology. It will be argued here that the history of anatomy in Nazi Germany can inform current anatomy education in a concept of anatomy as the first "clinical discipline." By integrating insights from the history of anatomy into the learning process, anatomy education can model an approach to medicine that includes a full appreciation of the shared humanity of medical practitioners and patients.

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We consider the origin of neuroanatomical terms and their formation as such in the history of medicine. Along with the terms originating from common Indo-European roots and reflecting the typical process of metaphorization of trivial objects and phenomena, in this sphere we find semantic calques (one of the types of borrowing) and formations originating from late Latin. The prevailing simple metaphor testifies to the early origin of most terminological units.

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The law of Non-Original Malappropriate Eponymous Nomenclature (NOMEN) states that no phenomenon is named after its discoverer. However, eponymous terms are rife in the anatomical and medical literature. In this viewpoint commentary, the authors discuss the history of anatomical eponyms, explain the additional cognitive load imposed by eponyms that can negatively impact student learning and explore the view that eponyms are "pale, male and stale" in the socially conscious 21st century. The authors probe two of the most common arguments used to keep eponyms in anatomy education: (1) clinicians use them because they are easy, and (2) eponyms remind us of anatomy's history. Educators, clinicians and students need to work together to progress this movement and bring a modern lens to this discussion. Based on the arguments presented in this commentary, the authors propose that eponyms should be removed from anatomy curricula, textbooks and have no place in the anatomy classroom.

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Recent years have seen an explosion of interest in digitising museum collections. Among the objects of interest are anatomical and pathological specimens found in medical museums. As researchers increasingly produce digital replicas of these preparations, ways of integrating these resources into the medical curriculum must be explored. This article takes a medical humanities approach to this topical question, comparing the historic use of anatomical specimens to modern intentions, and exploring the potential for using digital anatomy to help integrate humanities into the curriculum. The use of anatomical specimens by William Hunter (1718-1783), whose collection is now kept at the Hunterian in the University of Glasgow, provides a key historic focus. The teaching intentions for his private courses of anatomy are examined, to investigate how specimens were used in an eighteenth-century "curriculum". The motivations behind digitisation and the use of digital anatomy in modern curriculums are then examined and compared. Many of these motivations are shared with Hunter's: the desire to maintain a unique anatomical resource, the need to provide multisensory engagement in learning, and a desire to attempt to show "natural" anatomy without the interference of human processes. The balance between fostering empathy and maintaining detachment is also key for both. Using digital replicas of historic specimens to teach anatomy also opens up a unique opportunity to educate students in the medical humanities in a fully integrated way. Understanding the full story of the specimens they use, as explored in the first half of the article, allows students to place themselves, their dissection subjects, and healthcare as a whole in a historical context. As well as fostering empathy in the dissection lab, the stories behind the specimens can be used to introduce key humanities topics, including ethics, institutional bias, and social aspects of health and disease. It is essential that this potential is explored now while digital anatomy is still a relatively young field, and therefore collaborations between anatomists and medical humanities practitioners can be built and included from the ground up.

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The present paper provides a detailed historical and numerical analysis of the processes regarding body procurement in a particular German anatomical institute, namely, the Dr. Senckenbergische Anatomie (DSA) in Frankfurt am Main. It covers the period from 1946 to 1980; i.e. the transitional phase during which unclaimed corpses were replaced by corpses stemming from body donors. The DSA is fortunate to possess the complete set of records spanning that period. Thus, we cannot only document the (failed) organizational and political efforts of the local anatomists and governmental agencies to uphold the unclaimed body system of old, but we can also present rather detailed data regarding the genesis of the system of body donations. In particular, we will provide evidence that this system was more or less self-generating, and that its emergence was not actively propagated by the local anatomists. Instead, it was triggered by both the media and by the donors themselves, with the latter acting as multipliers. In addition we provide, for the first time, data on the efficacy (in terms of "file corpses" vs. real corpses in anatomy) of a body donation system in Germany.

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Eduard Pernkopf (1888-1955) became head of the Second Anatomical Institute in 1933, dean of the medical faculty in 1938 with the Annexation of Austria into Nazi Germany, and rector of the University of Vienna in 1943. He gained worldwide recognition with his anatomical atlas, which many consider unequaled to this day. In the decades that followed, suspicion arose that the drawings were made using corpses of people who had been victims of Nazi persecution and, following international inquiries and critique, the University of Vienna appointed a historical commission to the matter. The commission published its results in 1998, concluding that anatomical specimens used for the illustrations in Pernkopf's atlas had in all likelihood been made using corpses of victims of the Nazi judicial system. In total, the Anatomical Institute received the corpses of at least 1377 executed people, including many members of the anti-Nazi resistance. Through the acquisition of Pernkopf's original publisher Urban & Schwarzenberg in 2003, the original drawings and the publishing rights went to Elsevier. While existing copies of Pernkopf's Anatomy remain in use, printing or licensing of the atlas or its illustrations were stopped in 1994, inducing an effective ban on publishing the illustrations in other contexts, for example in works dealing with history and ethics of anatomy. In December 2019, Elsevier donated the remaining original drawings and proofs to the Medical University of Vienna, ensuring that these returned to the institution where they originated. They are now part of the university's historical collections held at the Josephinum. Moreover, the transfer of the originals to Vienna ensures appropriate archiving and conservation, cataloging and digitization, as well as access to the illustrations for historical and related research.

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