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Meta-analyses have found that working memory (WM) can be improved with cognitive training; however, some authors have suggested that these improvements are mostly driven by biases in the measurement of WM, especially the use of similar tasks for assessment and training. In the present meta-analysis, we investigated whether WM, fluid intelligence, executive functions, and short-term memory can be improved by cognitive training and evaluated the impact of possible sources of bias. We performed a risk of bias assessment of the included studies and took special care in controlling for practice effects. Data from 52 independent comparisons were analyzed, including cognitive training aimed at different cognitive functions. Our results show small improvements in WM after training (SMD = 0.18). Much larger effects were observed when the analysis was restricted to assessment tasks similar to those used for training (SMD = 1.15). Fluid intelligence was not found to improve as a result of training, and improvements in WM were not related to changes in fluid intelligence. Our analyses did however indicate that cognitive training can improve specific executive functions. Contrary to expectations, a set of meta-regressions indicated that characteristics of the training programme, such as dosage and type of training, do not have an impact on the effectiveness of training. The risk of bias assessment revealed some concerns in the randomization process and possible selective reporting among studies. Overall, our results identified various potential sources of bias, with the most significant being the choice of assessment tasks.

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Despite its theoretical importance, little is known about how semantic memory structure facilitates and constrains creative idea production. We examine whether the semantic richness of a concept has both benefits and costs to creative idea production. Specifically, we tested whether cue set-size-an index of semantic richness reflecting the average number of elements associated with a given concept-impacts the quantity (fluency) and quality (originality) of responses generated during the alternate uses task (AUT). Across four studies, we show that low-association, sparse, AUT cues benefit originality at the cost of fluency compared to high-association, rich, AUT cues. Furthermore, we found an interaction with individual differences in fluid intelligence in the low-association AUT cues, suggesting that constraints of sparse semantic knowledge can be overcome with top-down intervention. The findings indicate that semantic richness differentially impacts the quality and quantity of generated ideas, and that cognitive control processes can facilitate idea production when conceptual knowledge is limited.

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Sequences of eye movements during performance of a reasoning task has provided insights into the strategies individuals use to solve that specific task; however, prior studies have not examined whether eye gaze metrics reflect cognitive abilities in a way that transcends a specific task. Thus, our study aimed to explore the relationship between eye movement sequences and other behavioral measures. Here, we present two studies that related different eye gaze metrics in a matrix reasoning task with performance on a different test of fluid reasoning and tests of planning, working memory, and cognitive flexibility. Additionally, we related gaze metrics to self-reported executive functioning in daily life, as measured by BRIEF-A. To perform this, we classified the participants' eye gaze in each item of the matrices test using an algorithm and then used LASSO regression models with the cognitive abilities as the dependent variable to select eye-tracking metrics to predict it. Overall, specific and distinct eye gaze metrics predicted 57% variance in the fluid reasoning scores; 17% variance in the planning scores; and 18% variance in the working memory scores. Taken together, these results support the hypothesis that the selected eye-tracking metrics reflect cognitive abilities that transcend specific tasks.

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Cognitive strategies in matrix-reasoning tasks have been investigated for the last decade and a half. Several steps were made since the first paper in the field, but the advances have been sparse and with little connection. Here we present a review of the state of the art in this subject. We introduce how this topic was born and how to measure these strategies, covering the diverse methods and measures that are presented in the literature to progress on this subject and the applications that were developed, as well as the knowledge that resulted from these applications. Furthermore, the future directions are discussed with the intention to engage new researchers in this topic, as well as to bring awareness to limitations that were found given the available scientific literature.

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Ansiedade matemática (AM) é um conjunto de crenças, sintomas físicos e emocionais que algumas pessoas experimentam ao lidar com problemas matemáticos. O estudo objetivou investigar o efeito da AM no desempenho aritmético de crianças com alta inteligência. Participaram do estudo 52 crianças com desempenho inferior no subteste aritmética do TDE e classificação "acima da média" ou "intelectualmente superior" nas Matrizes de Raven. Os resultados demonstraram correlação forte entre inteligência e TDE aritmética (r = 0,82; p < 0,000); e correlações moderadas entre TDE aritmética e QAM-A (r = 0,32; p = 0,02) e QAM-B (r = 0,35; p = 0,01). A análise de regressão linear múltipla demonstrou uma predição de 8% da subescala QAM-A e de 11 % da QAM-B como preditores do desempenho aritmético. A ansiedade matemática interfere no desempenho em aritmética, mesmo em crianças com a inteligência fluída acima do esperado, sugerindo um importante efeito dos mecanismos emocionais.

Ansiedad matemática (AM) es un conjunto de creencias, síntomas físicos y emocionales que algunas personas experimentan al lidiar con problemas matemáticos. El estudio tuvo por objetivo investigar el efecto de la AM en el rendimiento aritmético de niños con alta inteligencia. Participaron del estudio 52 niños con rendimiento inferior en la subprueba aritmética del TDE y clasificación "superior de la media" o "intelectualmente superior" en las Matrices de Raven. Los resultados apuntan fuerte correlación entre inteligencia y TDE aritmética (r = 0,82; p < 0,000); y correlaciones moderadas entre TDE aritmética y QAM-A (r = 0,32; p = 0,02) y QAM-B (r = 0,35; p = 0,01). El análisis de regresión linear múltiple demostró una predicción del 8% de la subescala QAM-A y del 11 % de la QAM-B como predictores del rendimiento aritmético. La ansiedad matemática interfiere en el rendimiento en aritmética, incluso en niños con la inteligencia fluida superior al esperado, sugiriendo un importante efecto de los mecanismos emocionales.

Mathematical anxiety (MA) is a set of beliefs, physical and emotional symptoms that some people experience when dealing with mathematical problems. The study aimed to investigate the effect of MA on the arithmetic performance of children with high intelligence. Fifty-two children with lower performance on the STP arithmetic subtest and classification "above average" or "intellectually superior" in the Raven Matrices participated in the study. The results showed a strong correlation between intelligence and arithmetic EDT (r = 0.82; p < 0.000); and moderate correlations between arithmetic DET and MAQ (r = 0.32; p = 0.02) and MAQ-B (r = 0.35; p = 0.01). Multiple linear regression analysis showed an 8% prediction of the MAQ-A subscale and 11% of the MAQ-B as predictors of arithmetic performance. Mathematical anxiety interferes with arithmetic performance, even in children with higher than expected fluid intelligence, suggesting an important effect of emotional mechanisms.

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Background: About 47% of children < 5 years of age are stunted in Guatemala. In this study, the investigators aimed to compare growth and cognitive outcomes between children in second grade that attended five Guatemala City Municipal Nurseries (GCMN) vs. same sex, grade, and age-matched children. Methods: A cross-sectional design nested in a retrospective cohort was implemented between 2015 and 2019. Children that attended the GCMN and matched controls completed a math test and validated receptive language and fluid intelligence tests. The primary caregivers completed a sociodemographic survey. General and generalized linear mixed effect models were used to compare children that attended the GCMN vs. controls. The models were adjusted by maternal education, sex, asset score, and other relevant covariates. Results: Children that attended the GCMN exhibited greater math and fluid intelligence scores relative to the controls in the adjusted models (ß = 6.48; 95% CI (2.35−10.61)) and (ß = 1.20; 95% CI (0.12−2.29)), respectively. Lower odds of stunting were significant for children who went to any early childcare institution (AOR = 0.28; 95% CI (0.09−0.89)). Conclusions: The importance of integrating nutrition and high-quality early childhood education interventions in cognitive and growth outcomes is highlighted in this study. The GCMN model may be a scalable model in similar low-resource settings.

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The concept of cognitive reserve -CR- postulates two forms that prevent cognitive impairment: neural reserve and neural compensation. Both have been primarily linked to the protective role played by genetic factors, educational level, occupation or socioeconomic status. Though it is true that it has been related to executive functions, so far very little attention has been paid to its predictive capacity with other variables more related to social cognition and psychosocial adaptation. Considering socially vulnerable contexts with reduced cultural capital and educational levels, the neural reserve function would be the most relevant and best predictor of aspects related to social cognition and executive functions. We suggest that variables such as fluid and crystallized intelligence influence social cognition and executive functions. This study included a sample of 27 participants over 60 years old from varied contexts of social vulnerability. The procedure included data collection using various cognitive measures. Results show that elderly people with high intelligence-mainly fluid intelligence-have better executive functions, emotional recognition and theory of mind. These results focus on cognitive reserve and its importance because they show that elderly people in vulnerable contexts who strengthen these aspects protect themselves against the deterioration of cognitive skills. This study is the first preliminary research to present a relationship between cognitive reserve and social cognition factors in elderly subjects. Fluid intelligence functions as a highly related factor to protect the performance of executive functions, along with other social-cognitive factors relevant to facilitating the conditions of social adaptation.

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Abstract Introduction: In research, a simple measure of general cognitive ability is often required. One method is the Matrix Matching Test, a brief, free-to-use, language-free assessment of general cognitive ability or intelligence in adults, which taps both fluid and crystalized processes. We investigated its reliability and validity with adolescent participants. Method: The Matrix Matching Test was administered to 111 participants, aged 12 to 17 (46% female). Subsamples also completed two standard measures of cognitive ability: Vocabulary (crystalized) and Matrix Reasoning (fluid) tests from the Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Children IV (WISC-IV). Results: The Matrix Matching Test was found to have acceptable internal consistency and good retest reliability. Criterion validity was indicated by its ability to distinguish between psychosocially deprived participants living in foster care (n = 40) and controls, and by its positive correlation with grade point average. There were large positive correlations between the Matrix Matching Test and the standard measures of Vocabulary, and Matrix Reasoning, suggesting convergent validity. Conclusions: Our preliminary evidence suggests that The Matrix Matching Test is a reliable and valid measure of general cognitive ability for ages 12 to 17.

Resumen Introducción: En ámbitos de investigación, el uso de una herramienta de medición general de habilidad cognitiva es comúnmente requerido. Una de estas herramientas es el Matrix Matching Test, una evaluación de habilidad cognitiva o inteligencia para adultos que es corta, de uso gratuito y no tiene impedimentos de lenguaje. Esta herramienta evalúa los procesos fluidos, así como los procesos cristalizados de la inteligencia adulta. Investigamos la confiabilidad y la validez de esta herramienta con participantes adolescentes. Método: Se administró la herramienta Matrix Matching Test a 111 participantes de edades entre 12 y 17 años (46 % mujeres). Los subgrupos además completaron dos medidas de habilidad cognitiva del más alto estándar obtenidos de la Escala de inteligencia de Wechsler para Niños IV (WISC-IV): Vocabulario (cristalizada) y Matrices (fluida). Resultados: Se encontró que el Matrix Matching Test tiene una consistencia interna aceptable y buena confiabilidad retest. Se indicó el criterio de validez por su capacidad para distinguir entre participantes habitantes en hogares sustitutos (n = 40) y participantes del grupo control. Asimismo, existe una correlación positiva con el GPA. Además, se encontró correlaciones positivas fuertes entre el Matrix Matching Test y las mediciones de más alto estándar de Vocabulario y Matrices, lo que sugiere una validez convergente. Conclusiones: Nuestra evidencia preliminar sugiere que el Matrix Matching Test es una medida confiable y válida para las habilidades cognitivas generales en edades de 12 a 17 años.

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BACKGROUND: Growth faltering in early childhood is associated with poor human capital attainment, but associations of linear growth in childhood with executive and socioemotional functioning in adulthood are understudied. OBJECTIVES: In a Guatemalan cohort, we identified distinct trajectories of linear growth in early childhood, assessed their predictors, and examined associations between growth trajectories and neurodevelopmental outcomes in adulthood. We also assessed the mediating role of schooling on the association of growth trajectories with adult cognitive outcomes. METHODS: In 2017-2019, we prospectively followed 1499 Guatemalan adults who participated in a food supplementation trial in early childhood (1969-1977). We derived height-for-age sex-specific growth trajectories from birth to 84 mo using latent class growth analysis. RESULTS: We identified 3 growth trajectories (low, intermediate, high) with parallel slopes and intercepts already differentiated at birth in both sexes. Children of taller mothers were more likely to belong to the high and intermediate trajectories [relative risk ratio (RRR): 1.21; 95% CI: 1.15, 1.26, and RRR: 1.11; 95% CI: 1.07, 1.15, per 1-cm increase in height, respectively] compared with the low trajectory. Children in the wealthiest compared with the poorest socioeconomic tertile were more likely to belong to the high trajectory compared with the low trajectory (RRR: 2.24; 95% CI: 1.29, 3.88). In males, membership in the high compared with low trajectory was positively associated with nonverbal fluid intelligence, working memory, inhibitory control, and cognitive flexibility at ages 40-57 y. Sex-adjusted results showed that membership in the high compared with low trajectory was positively associated with meaning and purpose scores at ages 40-57 y. Associations of intermediate compared with low growth trajectories with study outcomes were also positive but of lesser magnitude. Schooling partially mediated the associations between high and intermediate growth trajectories and measures of cognitive ability in adulthood. CONCLUSIONS: Modifiable and nonmodifiable risk factors predicted growth throughout childhood. Membership in the high and intermediate growth trajectories was positively associated with adult cognitive and socioemotional functioning.

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Inhibition constitutes one of the main executive functions and it is important to more complex skills such as fluid intelligence. Actually, there is an agreement on distinguishing three inhibitory types: perceptual, cognitive and response inhibition. Several studies show the differential engagement of these inhibitory types in different skills. However, there is no registered evidence about the differential relation of inhibitory types with fluid intelligence. This inquiry is especially important during the first school years, since in this stage, inhibitory processes would already be differentiated, and inhibitory processes and fluid intelligence are linked to the performance of children in the school setting. For these reasons, the goal of this work is to study the relation and contribution of perceptual, cognitive, and response inhibition with fluid intelligence, in children in the first years of primary school. For that purpose, a sample of children from six to eight years old (N = 178) was tested with a perceptual inhibition task (perception of similarities and differences task); a cognitive inhibition task (proactive interference task); a response inhibition task (stop signal task); and a fluid intelligence task (progressive matrices task). We observed significant correlations between perceptual and response inhibition and fluid intelligence (controlling for age), but only perceptual inhibition explains significantly part of the performance in the fluid intelligence task. This study provides data about the specific contribution, during childhood, of an inhibitory type to fluid intelligence and contributes empirical evidence in support of the non-unitary approach of inhibition.

La inhibición constituye una de las principales funciones ejecutivas, siendo fundamental para otras habilidades más complejas, tales como la inteligencia fluida. Actualmente, existe acuerdo en distinguir tres procesos inhibitorios: inhibición perceptual, cognitiva y de la respuesta. Distintos estudios muestran que los tipos inhibitorios participan de manera diferencial en diversas habilidades, aunque no se registra evidencia sobre la relación diferencial de los mismos con la inteligencia fluida. Su estudio es especialmente importante durante los primeros años de la escuela primaria, donde los procesos inhibitorios estarían diferenciados y tanto ellos como la inteligencia fluida se vinculan con el desempeño de los niños en el ámbito escolar. Por estos motivos, este trabajo se propuso analizar la relación y contribución de la inhibición perceptual, cognitiva y de la respuesta con la inteligencia fluida en niños en los primeros años de la escuela primaria. Para ello, una muestra de niños de seis a ocho años de edad (N = 178) fue evaluada con una tarea de inhibición perceptual (test de percepción de diferencias y similitudes), una tarea de inhibición cognitiva (tarea de interferencia proactiva), una tarea de inhibición de la respuesta (basada en el paradigma stop signal ) y una tarea de inteligencia fluida (test de matrices progresivas). Se encontraron correlaciones significativas entre la inhibición perceptual y de la respuesta con la inteligencia fluida (controlando la edad), pero solo la inhibición perceptual explica de manera significativa parte del rendimiento en la tarea de inteligencia fluida. Este estudio aporta datos específicos sobre la contribución de un tipo inhibitorio a la inteligencia fluida durante la niñez, así como evidencia empírica a favor del modelo no-unitario de la inhibición.

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A presente pesquisa correlacionou dados provenientes da aplicação do teste de Inteligência BPR-5 com uma avaliação escolar de matemática e língua portuguesa em uma amostra de 679 alunos do nono ano do ensino fundamental de quatro escolas de uma rede particular de ensino. Os resultados dessas avaliações se mostraram fortemente correlacionados e estatisticamente significativos com escores dos testes de QI (r =,58, p < 0,01), evidenciando elevadas cargas em Inteligência Fluida (Gf). Uma análise longitudinal (5° ao 9° ano) foi aplicada através do Modelo de Curva de Crescimento Latente que investigou a média da variância inicial (intercepto) e a média de crescimento (slope) no desempenho acadêmico (DA) dos sujeitos, em dois modelos (com e sem a variável independente BPR), com o objetivo de investigar a capacidade preditiva de Gf no DA. Quando inserida a variável BPR, seu impacto no intercepto foi estimado em 20,288 e no slope, 6,381. Essas estimativas indicam o acréscimo no desempenho inicial e no crescimento no DA em razão de cada ponto a mais no escore em BPR. A diferença entre o intercepto e o slope foi negativa e estatisticamente significativa (-224,156, p < 0,01), sinalizando que os sujeitos que apresentaram desempenho inicial mais baixo no DA, obtiveram um crescimento maior no período avaliado. Assim, a capacidade preditiva de Gf sobre o DA foi demonstrada, corroborando os resultados da literatura.

The present search studies the correlation between data of the BPR-5 Intelligence test with a school assessment of mathematics and portuguese language and from a sample of 679 ninth grade students from four elementary private schools. The results indicate a strong correlation and statistically significant with IQ test scores (r =, 58, p < 0.01), showing high loads on Fluid Intelligence (Gf). A longitudinal analysis (5th to 9th grade) was applied using the Latent Growth Curve Model, which investigated the average initial variance (intercept) and the average growth (slope) in the subjects' academic performance (AP), in two models (with and without the independent variable BPR), aiming to investigate the predictive capacity of Gf in AP. When the variable BPR was inserted, its impact on the intercept was estimated at 20,288 and on the slope, 6,381. These outcomes indicate the increase on initial performance and growth in AP due to each additional point in the BPR score. The difference between the intercept and the slope was negative and statistically significant (-224,156, p < 0.01), indicating that the subjects who presented lower initial AP had a higher growth in the evaluated period. Thus, the Gf's predictive ability on AP was demonstrated, which corroborates with the literature results.

La presente investigación correlacionó datos de la aplicación de la prueba de inteligencia BPR-5 con una evaluación escolar de matemáticas y portugués en una muestra de 679 estudiantes en el noveno grado de la escuela primaria de cuatro escuelas en una red privada. Se demostró que los resultados de estas evaluaciones están fuertemente correlacionados y son estadísticamente significativos con los puntajes de las pruebas de CI (r =, 58, p < 0.01), mostrando altas cargas en Inteligencia fluida (Gf). Se aplicó un análisis longitudinal (5º a 9º año) utilizando el Modelo de curva de crecimiento latente que investigó el promedio de la varianza inicial (intercepción) y el promedio de crecimiento (pendiente) en el rendimiento académico (RA) de los sujetos, en dos modelos (con y sin la variable independiente BPR), con el fin de investigar la capacidad predictiva de Gf en AD. Cuando se insertó la variable BPR, su impacto en la intersección se estimó en 20,288 y en la pendiente, 6,381. Estas estimaciones indican un aumento en el rendimiento inicial y el crecimiento en RA debido a cada punto adicional en el puntaje BPR. La diferencia entre la intersección y la pendiente fue negativa y estadísticamente significativa (-224,156, p < 0.01), lo que indica que los sujetos que tuvieron un rendimiento inicial más bajo en RA, tuvieron un mayor crecimiento en el período evaluado. Por lo tanto, se demostró la capacidad predictiva de Gf en AD, corroborando los resultados de la literatura.

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INTRODUCTION: The volume of the striatal structures has been associated with disease progression in individuals with Huntington's disease (HD) from North America, Europe, and Australia. However, it is not known whether the gray matter (GM) volume in the striatum is also sensitive in differentiating vulnerability from disease manifestation in HD families from a South-American region known to have high incidence of the disease. In addition, the association of enlarged brain perivascular spaces (PVS) with cognitive, behavioral, and motor symptoms of HD is unknown. MATERIALS AND METHODS: We have analyzed neuroimaging indicators of global atrophy, PVS burden, and GM tissue volume in the basal ganglia and thalami, in relation to behavioral, motor, and cognitive scores, in 15 HD patients with overt disease manifestation and 14 first-degree relatives not genetically tested, which represent a vulnerable group, from the region of Magdalena, Colombia. RESULTS: Poor fluid intelligence as per the Raven's Standard Progressive Matrices was associated with global brain atrophy (p = 0.002) and PVS burden (p ≤ 0.02) in HD patients, where the GM volume in all subcortical structures, with the exception of the right globus pallidus, was associated with motor or cognitive scores. Only the GM volume in the right putamen was associated with envy and MOCA scores (p = 0.008 and 0.015 respectively) in first-degree relatives. CONCLUSION: Striatal GM volume, global brain atrophy and PVS burden may serve as differential indicators of disease manifestation in HD. The Raven's Standard Progressive Matrices could be a cognitive test worth to consider in the differentiation of vulnerability versus overt disease in HD.

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En Cuba, no existen instrumentos propios para la evaluación de la inteligencia. Para solucionar el problema, el Centro de Neurociencias de Cuba, y en especial, el Departamento de Neurociencias Educacionales, diseñó una Batería de Rendimiento Intelectual (BRI) para niños escolares cubanos (conformado por Escala capacidad Intelectual, ECI y Analogías verbales, AV). Objetivos: (1) Completar y validar la BRI para la evaluación de Gf y Gc en niños cubanos de edad escolar, (2) Método. Determinar la contribución única de Gf y Gc, evaluada con la BRI, en el aprovechamiento académico en niños cubanos. Se aplicaron dos estudios. a) Validación de la ECI con una muestra de 370 niños entre 7 y 11 años (N1 ­ 270 para calcular punto de corte y N2 para validar los puntos de corte). b) Diseño de la AV con una muestra de 36 niños entre 10 y 11 años. Resultados. La ECI resulta una prueba apropiada para detectar al niño escolar con riesgo intelectual. El resultado se sustenta en la alta coincidencia (89%) con el WISC-R para clasificar niños con trastornos intelectuales. El diseño de la AV presenta apropiadas propiedades psicométricas, pues presenta significativas correlaciones con la sub-prueba de Vocabulario del WISC-R. Conclusiones. La BRI presenta apropiadas propiedades psicométricas para detectar el riesgo intelectual en niños cubanos.

In Cuba not have own instruments for the assessment of intelligence. To resolve the problem, the Neuroscience Center of Cuba, and the Department of Educational Neuroscience, design a Battery of Intellectual Performance (BIP) for school children (Intellectual Capacity Scale, ICE and Verbal Analogy, VA). Objectives: (1) to complete and validate the BIP for the evaluation of Gf and Gc in cuban children of school age, (2) Method. Determine the unique contribution of Gf and Gc, evaluated with the BIP, on academic achievement in Cuban children. Two studies were applied. a) Validation of the ICE with a sample of 370 children between 7 and 11 years (N1 - 270 to calculate the cut-off point and N2 to validate the cut-off points). b) Design of the VA with a sample of 36 children between the ages of 10 and 11 years. Results. The ICE is a proper test to detect the child with intellectual risk. The result is based on the high coincidence (89%) with the WISC-R to classify children with intellectual disorders. The design of the VA presents appropriate psychometric properties, because it presents significant correlations with the sub-vocabulary test of the WISC-R. Conclusions. The BIP presents appropriate psychometric properties to detect risk Cuban intellectual in school children.

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Baddeley's grammatical reasoning test is a quick and efficient measure of fluid reasoning which is commonly used in research on cognitive abilities and the impact of stresses and environmental factors on cognitive performance. The test, however, is verbal and can only be used with native speakers of English. In this study, we adapted the test for application in the Persian language using a different pair of verbs and geometrical shapes instead of English letters. The adapted test had high internal consistency and retest reliability estimates. It also had an excellent fit to a one-factor confirmatory factor model and correlated acceptably with other measures of fluid intelligence and participants' grade point average (GPA).

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Baddeley's grammatical reasoning test is a quick and efficient measure of fluid reasoning which is commonly used in research on cognitive abilities and the impact of stresses and environmental factors on cognitive performance. The test, however, is verbal and can only be used with native speakers of English. In this study, we adapted the test for application in the Persian language using a different pair of verbs and geometrical shapes instead of English letters. The adapted test had high internal consistency and retest reliability estimates. It also had an excellent fit to a one-factor confirmatory factor model and correlated acceptably with other measures of fluid intelligence and participants' grade point average (GPA). (AU)

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La teoría de la inversión de Cattell establece que inteligencia fluida(Gf) constituye la base de la inteligencia cristalizada (Gc), en tanto hace posible la adquisición de habilidades y conocimientos. Sin embargo, las evidencias empíricas no son concluyentes. La presente investigación pretende determinar la contribución única de la inteligencia, Gf y Gc, sobre el rendimiento académico del niño escolar. Se utilizó una muestra de 100 niños según criterios de selección en dos tipos de enseñanza: niños con calificaciones de Mal y Regular en las materias escolares (enseñanza regular) y niños con retraso mental ligero (enseñanza especial). Las pruebas intelectuales fueron: Escala de Capacidad Intelectual y Analogía verbales. Las tareas académicas fueron: fluidez lectora y fluidez matemática. Los resultaron indicaron fuertes correlaciones entre las variables académicas y las intelectuales. La regresión jerárqica indicó contribución significativa de Gc (Analogía verbales) para pronosticar el desarrollo de la lectura cuando se controla el efecto de Gf (Escala de Capacidad Intelectual). Por el contrario, Gf mostró una contribución significativa para explicar el rendimiento de la matemática cuando se controla a Gc.

The investment theory of Cattell states that fluid intelligence (Gf) is the basis of crystallized intelligence (Gc), as does the acquisition of skills and knowledge possible. However, the empirical evidence is inconclusive. This research trying to determine the unique contribution of intelligence, Gf and Gc, on the academic performance of school children. A sample of 100 children was used as selection criteria in two types of education: children with scores bad and regular school subjects (regular education) and children with mild mental retardation (special education). Intellectual tests were: Intellectual Ability Scale and Verbal Analogy test. Academic tasks were: reading fluency and math fluency. The resulted showed strong correlations between academic and intellectual variables. The hierarchical regression indicated significant contribution of Gc (Verbal Analogy) to predict the development of reading when the effect of Gf (Intellectual Ability Scale) is controlled. By contrast, Gf showed a significant contribution to explain the performance of mathematics when Gc controls.

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Resumen: El objetivo de este trabajo es contribuir a la comprensión de la relación entre la memoria de trabajo y la inteligencia fluida. Para esto se realizó una búsqueda de artículos empíricos en las bases de datos PubMed y Google Académico utilizando una combinación de los términos en español y en inglés memoria de trabajo (working memory) e inteligencia fluida (fluid intelligence). La revisión de la literatura indica que el control atencional y la capacidad de recuperar información de la memoria a largo plazo, serían los procesos a través de los cuales la memoria de trabajo y la inteligencia fluida se relacionan. Sin embargo, existen resultados contradictorios respecto del rol que la retención de la información y que la capacidad de procesamiento de la información presentan en esta relación. Se concluye señalando algunos aspectos metodológicos que mejorarían la comprensión de la relación entre la memoria de trabajo y la inteligencia fluida.

Abstract: The aim of this paper is to contribute to the understanding of the relationship between working memory and fluid intelligence. A search was conducted in PubMed and Google Scholar database using a combination of the Spanish and English terms working memory (memoria de trabajo) and fluid intelligence (inteligencia fluida). The review indicates that attention control and the ability to retrieve information from long-term memory would be the processes through which working memory and fluid intelligence are related. However, there are conflicting results regarding the role of retention of information and information processing capacity in this relationship. We concluded by pointing out some methodological aspects that would enhance the understanding of the relationship between working memory and fluid intelligence.

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BACKGROUND: The Nine-Card Sorting Test provides valid and reliable scores when screening executive function, intelligence, and academic achievement. It is also useful for detecting cognitive impairment and dementia in the elderly and for assessing disease evolution and treatment effectiveness. It deals with three non-verbal sorting principles, individually and in pairs. The presence of risk in the ability to discover and organize visual logical stimuli is explored. OBJECTIVES: This study aimed to describe performance on the Nine-Card Sorting Test in a non-clinical sample, to analyze the effect of demographic variables, and to propose suitable (i.e. the simplest and most homogeneous) cut-off points for possible deficits. Combinations in pairs (double arrays) were assessed (range: 0-3). RESULTS: Significant effects of age and education were observed, but no interactions among the demographic variables were seen. Differences between the second and third levels of education and between men and women were not significant. The simplest cut-off points were as follows: (i) the median for people younger than 45 years old was 2, independent of educational level; (ii) the median for people older than 74 years old was 1, independent of educational level; and (iii) the median for people aged 45-74 years old was 1 for the first level of education and 2 for higher levels of education. CONCLUSION: By considering both the statistical nature of the present dependent variable (number of completed categories) and the clear-cut performance of the different samples studied, this neuropsychological test can be defined as a categorical screening for executive function and global cognition. This is advantageous for reporting risk. Of the whole sample, the 25th percentile (score = 1) represented a valid index for possible deficits. Ageing questions are highlighted. The test is also fruitful for studies on visuospatial organization and its facilitatory and inhibitory mechanisms.

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Multiple studies have tried to establish the distinctive profile of individuals with Asperger's syndrome (AS). However, recent reports suggest that adults with AS feature heterogeneous cognitive profiles. The present study explores inter-individual variability in children with AS through group comparison and multiple case series analysis. All participants completed an extended battery including measures of fluid and crystallized intelligence, executive functions, theory of mind, and classical neuropsychological tests. Significant group differences were found in theory of mind and other domains related to global information processing. However, the AS group showed high inter-individual variability (both sub- and supra-normal performance) on most cognitive tasks. Furthermore, high fluid intelligence correlated with less general cognitive impairment, high cognitive flexibility, and speed of motor processing. In light of these findings, we propose that children with AS are characterized by a distinct, uneven pattern of cognitive strengths and weaknesses.

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O presente estudo teve como objetivo investigar se o teste de raciocínio auditivo musical (RAu) avalia uma habilidade específica, relacionada ao processamento auditivo (Ga), ou se o instrumento configura-se como teste de avaliação de inteligência fluida (Gf) ou de conhecimento específico (Gkn). Além disso, buscou-se evidenciar a capacidade do RAu para discriminar os indivíduos em diferentes níveis de habilidade musical. Três grupos - músicos (N = 7), músicos amadores (N = 22) e leigos em música (N = 20) - com idade variando entre 18 e 59 anos, sendo 57,1% do sexo masculino, responderam aos testes. Encontraram-se correlações moderadas significativas entre Analogias 2 e as provas de raciocínio verbal e raciocínio espacial (0,36 e 0,37, respectivamente). Os três grupos diferiram significativamente nas medidas de acordo com o nível de experiência com música. Os resultados sugerem que o raciocínio e processamento auditivo são construtos relacionados, e que o RAu é capaz de discriminar as pessoas de acordo com o nível de habilidade musical.

The present study aimed to investigate if the Musical Auditory Reasoning Test (RAu) evaluates a specific ability related to auditory reasoning (Ga), or if the instrument is presented as a test for fluid intelligence (Gf) or specific knowledge (Gkn) assessment. In addition, we sought to verify the RAu's capacity to differentiate individuals into different levels of musical ability. Three groups - musicians (N = 7), amateur musicians (N = 22) and lay in music (N = 20) - aged between 18 and 59 years, with 57.1% males, answered the tests. Moderate significant correlations were found between Analogies 2 with verbal reasoning and spatial reasoning tasks (.36 and .37 respectively). The three groups differed significantly in measures according to the level of music experience. The results suggest that the auditory processing and reasoning are related constructs, and that RAu is able to discriminate people according to the level of musical ability.

El presente estudio tuvo como objetivo investigar si el test de razonamiento auditivo musical (RAu) evalua una habilidad específica relacionada con el razonamiento auditivo (Ga), o si el instrumento se presenta como una prueba para la evaluación de la inteligencia fluida (Gf) o de conocimientos específicos (Gkn). Además, tratamos de verificar la capacidad del RAu para diferenciar a los individuos en diferentes niveles de habilidad musical. Tres grupos - músicos (N = 7), músicos amadores (N = 22) y los laicos en la música (N = 20) - con edades comprendidas entre 18 y 59 años, con 57,1% de los hombres, responderán a las pruebas. Se encontraron correlaciones significativas moderadas entre Analogías 2 con el razonamiento verbal y razonamiento espacial (0,36 y 0,37 respectivamente). Los tres grupos diferían significativamente en las medidas de acuerdo con el nivel de experiencia de la música. Los resultados sugieren que el procesamiento auditivo y el razonamiento son constructos relacionados, y que el RAu es capaz de discriminar a las personas de acuerdo al nivel de habilidad musical.