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Ethnic-racial discrimination has pervasive negative effects on Black youth's mental health; therefore, it is crucial to identify factors that provide resilience against discrimination. Two promising factors to help youth cope are ethnic-racial identity (how one feels about their ethnicity/race) and shift-and-persist coping (reappraising and accepting an uncontrollable stressor while remaining optimistic about the future). While there is existing scholarship on ethnic-racial identity among Black youth, this work has not yet assessed the impacts of shift-and-persist in this population. Using a sample of 155 Black youth (ages 13-17), the current study examined the interplay between discrimination, ethnic-racial identity, shift-and-persist coping, and internalizing symptoms. Symptoms of depression and anxiety were positively associated with discrimination and negatively associated with shift-and-persist. Significant interactions between discrimination and shift-and-persist predicting both depressive and anxiety symptoms revealed significant negative associations between shift-and-persist and internalizing symptoms at low and average, but not high discrimination levels. Effects are, thus, protective-reactive; the protective effects of shift-and-persist are not significant for youth facing high levels of discrimination. Ethnic-racial identity, surprisingly, was not significantly associated with either depressive or anxiety symptoms, nor did it interact with shift-and-persist as it has in studies of Latinx youth. By understanding the protective benefits of shift-and-persist and ethnic-racial identity in Black youth, during a pivotal period for mental health, we can provide this growing population with tools to lessen the maladaptive outcomes associated with discrimination.

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OBJECTIVES: Having higher levels of mainstream cultural orientation (MCO), an important component of acculturation attitudes and behaviors, is beneficial for ethnic/racial minority students during the transitions into university. Scant research has investigated MCO at a micro daily timescale. This study examined how personality (agreeableness) functions in conjunction with interpersonal processes (inter-ethnic contact and perceived discrimination) to influence MCO as daily within-person processes. METHODS: Multi-level structural equation modeling were used to analyze month-long daily diary data from 209 ethnic/racial minority freshmen (69% female). RESULTS: There was a positive indirect association between agreeableness and MCO through inter-ethnic contact at both within- and between-person levels. At the within-person level, on days with lower (vs. higher) levels of ethnic/racial discrimination, higher levels of agreeableness were associated with higher levels of MCO. CONCLUSIONS: These findings highlight the contributions of intensive longitudinal data in elucidating ethnic/racial minority students' personality and acculturation processes in daily life involving protective and risk factors on micro timescales.

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The current study examined associations between Black adolescents' (Mage = 15.55, SD = 1.23) racial discrimination and suicide behaviors (i.e., suicide ideation, suicide plan, and suicide attempts), and whether perceived school safety was a protective moderator. Furthermore, we tested gender differences in relations, which were not significant. Racial discrimination predicted greater suicide behaviors, and school safety informed less suicide behaviors. School safety moderated the relation between discrimination and suicide plan, such that at low school safety, discrimination predicted having a suicide plan but was not significant at high school safety. Furthermore, school safety moderated the relation between discrimination and suicide attempts. At low school safety, discrimination predicted more suicide attempts, but was not significant at high school safety.

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BACKGROUND: Black women and Latinas in their thirties continue to be at risk for HIV transmission via heterosexual intercourse. METHODS: Informed by the Theory of Gender and Power, this study investigated a longitudinal path model linking experiences of ethnic-racial discrimination in late adolescence to sexual risk behaviors in adulthood among 492 Black women and Latinas. We also tested whether ethnic-racial identity exploration served as a resilience asset protecting women against the psychological impact of ethnic-racial discrimination. Survey data from female participants in the Harlem Longitudinal Development Study, which has followed a cohort of New York City Black and Latinx youth since 1990, were analyzed. Data for this analysis were collected at four time points when participants were on average 19, 24, 29, and 32 years of age. Structural equation modeling was used to examine a hypothesized pathway from earlier ethnic-racial discrimination to later sexual risk behaviors and the protective role of ethnic-racial identity exploration. RESULTS: Results confirmed that ethnic-racial discrimination in late adolescence was linked with sexual risk behaviors in the early thirties via increased levels of affective distress in emerging adulthood, experiences of victimization in young adulthood, and substance use in the early thirties among women low in ethnic-racial identity exploration. We also found that ethnic-racial identity served as a resilience asset, as the association between discrimination in late adolescence and affective distress in emerging adulthood was not significant among women with higher levels of ethnic-racial identity exploration. CONCLUSIONS: The results provide important preliminary evidence that ethnic-racial identity exploration may serve as a resilience asset among Black women and Latinas confronting racial discrimination. Further, we suggest that ethnic-racial identity exploration may constitute an important facet of critical consciousness.

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Adolescents' identities are multiple, yet there is very little research that investigates the importance of intersecting identities, especially in relationship to teacher ethnic/racial discrimination and mental health. Multiplicity is often approached bi-dimensional (heritage and national identities) yet this study highlights the importance of regional identity. Regions are distinct socio-political contexts in relation to migration and integration dynamics. Hence, this study investigates for different combinations of national, heritage and regional identities (i.e. Flemish, Belgian and Turkish or Moroccan) the relationship between students' experiences with teacher ethnic/racial discrimination and students' depressive feelings. Latent Class Analysis of survey data involving a sample of 439 adolescents (Mage = 18, SD = 0.93; Girls = 49%) with Turkish (41%) or Moroccan origin in Flanders, shows three identification classes: full integration (35%), national integration (40%) and (weak) separation (24%). All these identity profiles had in common that heritage identification was high, yet they were highly distinct due to variation in national and regional identification. Additional, multilevel modelling showed that nationally integrated adolescents were less depressed than fully integrated adolescents. This finding illustrates the importance of adolescents' identity multiplicity for understanding their resilience in relation to teacher discrimination.

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Little is known about how Black and Latinx young adults cope with experiences of ethnic-racial discrimination, particularly over short periods of time. A multigroup path model examined the relations between discrimination and five strategies for coping with ethnic-racial discrimination (talking with others, being proud, working hard, being rude, and ignoring) among Black and Latinx young adults (N = 145) at two time points over a six-week period. Experiences of discrimination were positively associated with the coping strategies of being proud of oneself and working hard to prove discriminatory people wrong. There was moderate stability in coping strategy use over time. Models did not vary by race-ethnicity, suggesting discrimination related to coping in similar ways among Black and Latinx young adults.

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BACKGROUND: Informed by Latino Critical Race Theory, the present study examined how intersections between English use/proficiency, Spanish use/proficiency, and heritage group shape the varying experiences of ethnic discrimination reported by US Hispanic adults. METHODS: The study utilized data from 7,037 Hispanic adults from the 2012-2013 National Epidemiologic Survey on Alcohol and Related Conditions-III. Multivariable binomial logistic regression modeled language use/proficiency, heritage, and demographic characteristics as predictors of past-year self-reported perceived ethnic discrimination, overall and in six different settings. RESULTS: Both English and Spanish use/proficiency were positively associated with increased adjusted odds of reporting ethnic discrimination overall, in public, or with respect to employment/education/ housing/courts/police; however, with respect to being called a racist name or receiving verbal/physical threats/assaults, a positive association was observed for English, yet not Spanish. Results also indicated a significant interaction between English use/proficiency and Spanish use/proficiency when predicting past-year ethnic discrimination overall or for any of the six types/settings examined, although the relationship between language use/proficiency and ethnic discrimination varied by Hispanic heritage group. CONCLUSION: Study findings emphasize that experiencing some form of ethnic discrimination is relatively common among US Hispanic adults, yet the prevalence and types or settings of ethnic discrimination vary widely on the basis of demographics, immigrant generation, heritage, and the interplay between English and Spanish use/proficiency.

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Consistent with conceptual frameworks of ethnic-race-based stress responses, and empirical evidence for the detrimental effects of ethnic-racial discrimination, the current study hypothesized that experiencing more frequent ethnic-racial discrimination during adolescence would predict differences in physiological responses to psychosocial stress across the college transition. U.S. Latinx adolescents (N = 84; Mage = 18.56; SD = 0.35; 63.1% female; 85.7% Mexican descent) completed survey measures of ethnic-racial discrimination during their final year of high school and first college semester (~5 months later), as well as a standard psychosocial stressor task during their first college semester. Repeated blood pressure and salivary cortisol measures were recorded to assess cardiovascular and neuroendocrine activity at baseline and stress reactivity and recovery. Data were analyzed using multilevel growth models. Experiencing more frequent ethnic-racial discrimination in high school, specifically from adults, predicted higher baseline physiological stress levels and lower reactivity to psychosocial stress during the first college semester, evidenced by both blood pressure and cortisol measures. Experiencing ethnic-racial discrimination from peers in high school also predicted higher baseline blood pressure in college, but not stress reactivity indices. Results were consistent when controlling for concurrent reports of ethnic-racial discrimination, gender, parents' education level, body mass index, oral contraceptive use, time between longitudinal assessments, depressive symptoms, and general perceived stress. Experiencing frequent ethnic-racial discrimination during adolescence may lead to overburdening stress response systems, indexed by lower cardiovascular and neuroendocrine stress reactivity. Multiple physiological stress systems are sensitive to the consequences of ethnic-racial discrimination among Latinx adolescents transitioning to college.

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Research has yet to understand how ethnic/racial discrimination and ethnic/racial identity change simultaneously in adolescence. In a multiethnic sample of 211 adolescents (58% female; 41% Asian American, 10% Black, 24% Latinx, 22% White, 4% other), this study used latent change modeling to examine parallel changes in adolescents' discrimination experiences (frequency and distress) and ethnic/racial identity (private regard, centrality) from 9th to 11th grade. The year immediately following the transition into high school, from 9th to 10th grade, emerged as a challenging period with higher levels of discrimination and accompanying declines in adolescents' private regard. In contrast, from 10th to 11th grade, discrimination distress declined, and adolescents' private regard remained relatively stable. Across both time periods, parallel changes were observed for discrimination (frequency, distress) and adolescents' private regard. Implications for considering the importance of school transition, as well as individual differences by adolescent characteristics and school contexts, are discussed.

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Despite growing evidence that racial-ethnic discrimination has a critical impact on college students of color, there is a shortage of longitudinal studies investigating such discrimination across the course of students' college careers. The present study examined trajectories of professor- and peer-perpetrated ethnic-racial discrimination across the first three years in college and the correlations between these trajectories and academic, psychological, and physical adjustment outcomes during students' fourth year in a sample of 770 Black, 835 Asian American, and 742 Latino college students (total n = 2347; 60.1% female) at elite colleges and universities in the United States. Latent growth modeling revealed stability in reported peer discrimination over the first three years of college and an increase in reported discrimination from professors. Discrimination from peers and professors equally predicted unfavorable grades, a lower likelihood of on-time graduation, and less school satisfaction. Perceived discrimination from peers (but not from professors) during students' first year predicted higher rates of depressive symptoms and more health problems in their fourth year. Although initial levels and trajectories of discrimination varied as a function of students' ethnicity-race, the correlates between discrimination and adjustment outcomes did not vary between ethnic-racial groups. The present findings suggest that ethnic-racial discrimination is a complex, ecologically-based stressor that presents a constellation of challenges for students of color attending elite colleges and universities.

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The approaches Latina/o youth use for coping with discrimination have important consequences for their adjustment. Yet, little research has examined how adolescents draw on different coping strategies and how patterns of strategies may differentially predict their outcomes. The current investigation examined adolescents' patterns of coping strategies, changes in these patterns over time, and whether profile membership or transitions in profile membership related to adolescent adjustment. Among a longitudinal sample of Latina/o adolescents (N= 323, 49.5% female, Mage = 15.31 years), three profiles of coping strategies emerged: Passive and Moderately Proud, Confrontative, and Proactive. Latent Transition Analysis showed that these profiles were stable over time, that a majority of youth remained in the same profile of strategies across three years, and that the profiles were differentially related to adolescents' adjustment. The findings showed that individuals in the Proactive profile reported higher self-esteem and academic motivation than adolescents drawing on different repertoires of coping strategies. These results provide new insights regarding the concurrence of strategies Latina/o youth use to cope with ethnic-racial discrimination and suggest that the adoption of proactive strategies as part of a repertoire of coping strategies could potentially reduce the negative effects of discrimination among adolescents.

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PURPOSE: We examined the relations between African-American and Latino young adults' microaggressions and subsequent changes in weekly diurnal cortisol parameters (i.e., cortisol awakening responses, overall cortisol output (AUC), and diurnal slopes). METHODS: Young adults (N = 53, Mage = 20years, SD = .90; 72% female) participated in a 4-week diary study in which they reported their weekly experiences of microaggressions and completed 2 days ofsaliva samples each week. Saliva samples were obtained at waking, 30-minutes after waking, and bedtime on each sampling day (six samples each week; 24 samples total). In line with an idiographic approach to stress, young adults' increases and decreases in microaggressions (relative to their own average) were linked to changes in cortisol parameters the following week. RESULTS: Increases in microaggressions predicted greater AUC the subsequent week, controlling for gender, race, parental education, prior week's AUC, and weekly behavioral controls. Follow-up analyses of specific types of microaggressions indicated that experiences centered around criminality and second-class citizenship also related to increases in young adults' cortisol awakening responses the subsequent week. Microaggressions were unrelated to changes in diurnal slopes. CONCLUSIONS: Microaggressions were linked to subsequent changes in diurnal cortisol among African-American and Latino young adults. Given the rigorous within-person design, findings point to the importance and impact of subtle forms of discrimination on young adults' hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal axis activity, which is theorized to underlie health and well-being.

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As the U.S. Latino youth population grows, understanding how family and individual resources may promote Latino adolescents' academic outcomes is important. The current investigation examined whether family ethnic socialization predicted adolescents' use of proactive strategies for coping with ethnic-racial discrimination and examined a potential pathway through which these contextual and individual resources may relate to educational outcomes. Drawing on data from a sample of Latino adolescents (n = 321; Mage = 15.31 years, SD = .76; 49.5% female), results of a cross-sectional structural equation model showed a double mediation of the relation between family ethnic socialization and GPA by proactive coping strategies and self-efficacy. Alternate models, limitations of the current investigation, and implications for future research are discussed.

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Few studies are available about racial inequalities in perinatal health in Brazil and little is known about whether the existing inequality is due to socioeconomic factors or to racial discrimination per se. Data regarding the Ribeirão Preto birth cohort, Brazil, whose mothers were interviewed from June 1, 1978 to May 31, 1979 were used to answer these questions. The perinatal factors were obtained from the birth questionnaire and the ethnic data were obtained from 2063 participants asked about self-reported skin color at early adulthood (23-25 years of age) in 2002/2004. Mothers of mulatto and black children had higher rates of low schooling (ú4 years, 27.2 and 38.0 percent) and lower family income (ú1 minimum wage, 28.6 and 30.4 percent). Mothers aged less than 20 years old predominated among mulattos (17.0 percent) and blacks (14.0 percent). Higher rates of low birth weight and smoking during pregnancy were observed among mulatto individuals (9.6 and 28.8 percent). Preterm birth rate was higher among mulattos (9.5 percent) and blacks (9.7 percent) than whites (5.5 percent). White individuals had higher rates of cesarean delivery (34.9 percent). Skin color remained as an independent risk factor for low birth weight (P < 0.001), preterm birth (P = 0.01), small for gestational age (P = 0.01), and lack of prenatal care (P = 0.02) after adjustment for family income and maternal schooling, suggesting that the racial inequalities regarding these indicators are explained by the socioeconomic disadvantage experienced by mulattos and blacks but are also influenced by other factors, possibly by racial discrimination and/or genetics.

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