RESUMEN
Background University students are at a higher risk of using cognitive enhancers and psychoactive substances. Depression is associated with a noticeable decline in academic performance and can increase the risk of substance use. Due to sociopolitical issues, the use of cognitive enhancers and psychoactive substances among Palestinians has spread in the last decade. However, depression among tobacco and caffeine users remains underrecognized and neglected. Methodology A self-administrated questionnaire and the Beck Depression Inventory were used to assess the association of depression and the use of cognitive enhancers and psychoactive substances among university students at An-Najah National University in 2020. Results The response rate to the questionnaires was 78.8% (n = 1,051; 38.8% males, 61.2% females). The overall prevalence of depression was high (30.6% males, 34.7% females). The prevalence of cigarette smoking (39.2% males, 3.9% females), waterpipe smoking (43.1% males, 21.6% females), energy drink consumption (59.6% males, 29.7% females), coffee consumption (85.5% for each gender), tea consumption, and chocolate consumption was high, with significant differences in accordance to gender and academic fields. The multinomial logistic regression results revealed that cigarette smokers were more likely to have a higher risk of severe (odds ratio [OR] = 4.5, p = 0.001), moderate (OR = 3.27, p < 0.001), and mild depression (OR = 2.24, p = 0.002) than non-smokers. Severe depression was less prevalent among medical students than health sciences and non-medical students (OR = 0.215, p = 0.015). Moreover, males were less likely to have moderate (OR = 0.5, p = 0.012) and mild (OR = 0.48, p = 0.001) depression than females. Conclusions Overall, the results of this study revealed the high prevalence of depression and the detrimental effects of smoking on students. Moreover, the findings suggest the urgent need to address depression and risk factors among Palestinian university students by educating them about mental health, identifying high-risk students, and offering easily accessible psychological help. Further, it is crucial to broaden the focus of studies to include students from various academic fields instead of focusing on medical students.
RESUMEN
The aim of our study was to explore whether energy drink consumption is associated with both emotional and behavioural problems and whether this association might be mediated by amount of sleep and breakfast consumption among adolescents. The nationally representative Health Behaviour in School-aged Children (HBSC) study, realised in 2018 in Slovakia in schools, was used to acquire needed data, with the research sample of 8405 adolescents from 11 to 15 years old (mean age = 13.43; 50.9% boys) who completed the questionnaires on their own in a presence of researchers and research assistants. Emotional and behavioural problems were assessed by a Strengths and Difficulties Questionnaire, while energy drinks consumption, breakfast consumption and sleep duration was assessed by questions in line with the HBSC study protocol. Linear regression models assessed the associations between energy drinks consumption and emotional and behavioural problems. Mediation by sleep duration and breakfast consumption was assessed with parallel mediation models. Energy drink consumption was significantly associated with emotional (p < 0.001) and behavioural problems (p < 0.001), with higher consumption of energy drinks leading to more emotional and behavioural problems. Results from a parallel mediation analysis indicated that energy drink consumption is indirectly related to both emotional and behavioural problems through its relationship with the amount of sleep and breakfast consumption. Parents and professionals working with adolescents should be aware that unhealthy dietary habits and lack of sleep might be related to emotional and behavioural problems.