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AIM: In cyclic climate variations, including seasonal changes, many animals regulate their energy demands to overcome critical transitory moments, restricting their high-demand activities to phases of resource abundance, enabling rapid growth and reproduction. Tegu lizards (Salvator merianae) are ectotherms with a robust annual cycle, being active during summer, hibernating during winter, and presenting a remarkable endothermy during reproduction in spring. Here, we evaluated whether changes in mitochondrial respiratory physiology in skeletal muscle could serve as a mechanism for the increased thermogenesis observed during the tegu's reproductive endothermy. METHODS: We performed high-resolution respirometry and calorimetry in permeabilized red and white muscle fibers, sampled during summer (activity) and spring (high activity and reproduction), in association with citrate synthase measurements. RESULTS: During spring, the muscle fibers exhibited increased oxidative phosphorylation. They also enhanced uncoupled respiration and heat production via adenine nucleotide translocase (ANT), but not via uncoupling proteins (UCP). Citrate synthase activity was higher during the spring, suggesting greater mitochondrial density compared to the summer. These findings were consistent across both sexes and muscle types (red and white). CONCLUSION: The current results highlight potential cellular thermogenic mechanisms in an ectothermic reptile that contribute to transient endothermy. Our study indicates that the unique feature of transitioning to endothermy through nonshivering thermogenesis during the reproductive phase may be facilitated by higher mitochondrial density, function, and uncoupling within the skeletal muscle. This knowledge contributes significant elements to the broader picture of models for the evolution of endothermy, particularly in relation to the enhancement of aerobic capacity.

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Endothermy, understood as the maintenance of continuous and high body temperatures owing to the combination of metabolic heat production and an insulative cover, is severely challenged in small endotherms inhabiting cold environments. As a response, social clustering combined with nest use (=communal nesting) is a common strategy for heat conservation. To quantify the actual amount of energy that is saved by this strategy, we studied the social marsupial Dromiciops gliroides (monito del monte), an endemic species of the cold forests of southern South America. It is hypothesized that sociability in this marsupial was driven by cold conditions, but evidence supporting this hypothesis is unclear. Here, we used taxidermic models ('mannequins') to experimentally test the energetic benefits of clustering combined with nest use. To do this, we fitted and compared cooling curves of solitary and grouped mannequins, within and outside of a nest, at the typical winter ambient temperatures of their habitat (5°C). We found that the strategy that minimized euthermic cost of maintenance was the combination of nest use and clustering, thus supporting communal nesting as a social adaptation to cope with the cold. Considering the basal metabolic rate of monitos, our estimates suggest that the savings represents almost half of energy consumption per day (in resting conditions). This study shows how simple biophysical models could help to evaluate bioenergetic hypotheses for social behavior in cold-adapted endotherms.

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Hibernation is a natural state of suspended animation that many mammals experience and has been interpreted as an adaptive strategy for saving energy. However, the actual amount of savings that hibernation represents, and particularly its dependence on body mass (the 'scaling') has not been calculated properly. Here, we estimated the scaling of daily energy expenditure of hibernation (DEEH), covering a range of five orders of magnitude in mass. We found that DEEH scales isometrically with mass, which means that a gram of hibernating bat has a similar metabolism to that of a gram of bear, 20 000 times larger. Given that metabolic rate of active animals scales allometrically, the point where these scaling curves intersect with DEEH represents the mass where energy savings by hibernation are zero. For BMR, these zero savings are attained for a relatively small bear (approx. 75 kg). Calculated on a per cell basis, the cellular metabolic power of hibernation was estimated to be 1.3 × 10-12 ± 2.6 × 10-13 W cell-1, which is lower than the minimum metabolism of isolated mammalian cells. This supports the idea of the existence of a minimum metabolism that permits cells to survive under a combination of cold and hypoxia.

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Myotomal slow-oxidative muscle (SM) powers continuous swimming and generates heat needed to maintain elevated locomotor muscle temperatures (regional endothermy) in tunas. This study describes how the amount and distribution of myotomal SM increases with fish size and age in juvenile yellowfin tuna Thunnus albacares in relationship to the development of regional endothermy. In T. albacares juveniles 40-74 mm fork length (LF ; n = 23) raised from fertilised eggs at the Inter-American Tropical Tuna Commission Achotines Laboratory in Panama and larger juveniles (118-344 mm LF ; n = 5) collected by hook and line off of Oahu, Hawaii, USA, SM was identified by histochemical staining for the mitochondrial enzyme succinic dehydrogenase or by colour (in the two largest individuals). The cross-sectional area of myotomal SM at 60% LF , a position with maximal percentage of SM in larger T. albacares, increased exponentially with LF . The percentage of total cross-sectional area composed of SM at 60% LF increased significantly with both LF and age, suggesting that SM growth occurs throughout the size range of T. albacares juveniles studied. In addition, the percentage of SM at 60% LF that is medial increased asymptotically with LF . The increases in amount of SM and medial SM, along with the development of the counter-current heat-exchanger blood vessels that retain heat, allow larger tuna juveniles to maintain elevated and relatively stable SM temperatures, facilitating range expansion into cooler waters.

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Understanding how evolutionary variation in energetic metabolism arises is central to several theories in animal biology. Basal metabolic rate (BMR) -i.e., the minimum rate of energy necessary to maintain thermal homeostasis in endotherms- is a highly informative measure to increase our understanding, because it is determined under highly standardized conditions. In this study we evaluate the relationship between taxa- and mass-independent (residual) BMR and ten environmental factors for 34 subterranean rodent species. Both conventional and phylogenetically informed analyses indicate that ambient temperature is the major determinant of residual BMR, with both variables inversely correlated. By contrast, other environmental factors that have been shown to affect residual BMR in endotherms, such as habitat productivity and rainfall, were not significant predictors of residual BMR in this group of species. Then, the results for subterranean rodents appear to support a central prediction of the obligatory heat model (OHM), which is a mechanistic model aimed to explain the evolution of residual BMR. Specifically, OHM proposes that during the colonization of colder environments, individuals with greater masses of metabolically expensive tissues (and thus with greater BMR) are favored by natural selection due to the link between greater masses of metabolically expensive tissues and physiological capacities. This way, natural selection should establishes a negative correlation between ambient temperature and both internal organ size and residual BMR.

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There are two heuristic explanations proposed for the evolution of endothermy in vertebrates: a correlated response to selection for stable body temperatures, or as a correlated response to increased activity. Parental care has been suggested as a major driving force in this context given its impact on the parents' activity levels and energy budgets, and in the offspring's growth rates due to food provisioning and controlled incubation temperature. This results in a complex scenario involving multiple traits and transgenerational fitness benefits that can be hard to disentangle, quantify and ultimately test. Here we demonstrate how standard quantitative genetic models of maternal effects can be applied to study the evolution of endothermy, focusing on the interplay between daily energy expenditure (DEE) of the mother and growth rates of the offspring. Our model shows that maternal effects can dramatically exacerbate evolutionary responses to selection in comparison to regular univariate models (breeder's equation). This effect would emerge from indirect selection mediated by maternal effects concomitantly with a positive genetic covariance between DEE and growth rates. The multivariate nature of selection, which could favor a higher DEE, higher growth rates or both, might partly explain how high turnover rates were continuously favored in a self-reinforcing process. Overall, our quantitative genetic analysis provides support for the parental care hypothesis for the evolution of endothermy. We contend that much has to be gained from quantifying maternal and developmental effects on metabolic and thermoregulatory variation during adulthood.

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Complex physiological dynamics have been argued to be a signature of healthy physiological function. Here we test whether the complexity of metabolic rate fluctuations in small endotherms decreases with lower environmental temperatures. To do so, we examine the multifractal temporal scaling properties of the rate of change in oxygen consumption r(VO2), in the laboratory mouse Mus musculus, assessing their long range correlation properties across seven different environmental temperatures, ranging from 0 °C to 30 °C. To do so, we applied multifractal detrended fluctuation analysis (MF-DFA), finding that r(VO2) fluctuations show two scaling regimes. For small time scales below the crossover time (approximately 102 s), either monofractal or weak multifractal dynamics are observed depending on whether Ta < 15 °C or Ta > 15 °C respectively. For larger time scales, r(VO2) fluctuations are characterized by an asymptotic scaling exponent that indicates multifractal anti-persistent or uncorrelated dynamics. For both scaling regimes, a generalization of the multiplicative cascade model provides very good fits for the Renyi exponents τ(q), showing that the infinite number of exponents h(q) can be described by only two independent parameters, a and b. We also show that the long-range correlation structure of r(VO2) time series differs from randomly shuffled series, and may not be explained as an artifact of stochastic sampling of a linear frequency spectrum. These results show that metabolic rate dynamics in a well studied micro-endotherm are consistent with a highly non-linear feedback control system.

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With some notable exceptions, small ectothermic vertebrates are incapable of endogenously sustaining a body temperature substantially above ambient temperature. This view was challenged by our observations of nighttime body temperatures sustained well above ambient (up to 10°C) during the reproductive season in tegu lizards (~2 kg). This led us to hypothesize that tegus have an enhanced capacity to augment heat production and heat conservation. Increased metabolic rates and decreased thermal conductance are the same mechanisms involved in body temperature regulation in those vertebrates traditionally acknowledged as "true endotherms": the birds and mammals. The appreciation that a modern ectotherm the size of the earliest mammals can sustain an elevated body temperature through metabolic rates approaching that of endotherms enlightens the debate over endothermy origins, providing support for the parental care model of endothermy, but not for the assimilation capacity model of endothermy. It also indicates that, contrary to prevailing notions, ectotherms can engage in facultative endothermy, providing a physiological analog in the evolutionary transition to true endothermy.

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The mammalian nasal cavity is characterized by a unique anatomy with complex internal features. The evolution of turbinals was correlated with endothermic and macrosmatic adaptations in therapsids and in early mammals, which is still apparent in their twofold function (warming and moistening of air, olfaction). Fossil evidence for the transformation from the nonmammalian to the mammalian nasal cavity pattern has been poor and inadequate. Ossification of the cartilaginous nasal capsule and turbinals seems to be a feature that occurred only very late in synapsid evolution but delicate ethmoidal bones are rarely preserved. Here we provide the first µCT investigation of the nasal cavity of the advanced non-mammaliaform cynodont Brasilitherium riograndensis from the Late Triassic of Southern Brazil, a member of the sister-group of mammaliaforms, in order to elucidate a critical anatomical transition in early mammalian evolution. Brasilitherium riograndensis already had at least partially ossified turbinals as remnants of the nasoturbinal and the first ethmoturbinal are preserved. The posterior nasal septum is partly ossified and contributes to a mesethmoid. The nasal cavity is posteriorly expanded and forms a distinctive pars posterior (ethmoidal recess) that is ventrally separated from the nasopharyngeal duct by a distinct lamina terminalis. Thus, our observations clearly demonstrate that principal features of the mammalian nasal cavity were already present in the sister-group of mammaliaforms.

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Thermal conductance measures the ease with which heat leaves or enters an organism's body. Although the analysis of this physiological variable in relation to climatic and ecological factors can be traced to studies by Scholander and colleagues, only small advances have occurred ever since. Here, we analyse the relationship between minimal thermal conductance estimated during summer (Cmin) and several ecological, climatic and geographical factors for 127 rodent species, in order to identify the exogenous factors that have potentially affected the evolution of thermal conductance. In addition, we evaluate whether there is compensation between Cmin and basal metabolic rate (BMR)-in such a way that a scale-invariant ratio between both variables is equal to one-as could be expected from the Scholander-Irving model of heat transfer. Our major findings are (i) annual mean temperature is the best single predictor of mass-independent Cmin. (ii) After controlling for the effect of body mass, there is a strong positive correlation between log10 (Cmin) and log10 (BMR). Further, the slope of this correlation is close to one, indicating an almost perfect compensation between both physiological variables. (iii) Structural equation modelling indicated that Cmin values are adjusted to BMR values and not the other way around. Thus, our results strongly suggest that BMR and thermal conductance integrate a coordinated system for heat regulation in endothermic animals and that summer conductance values are adjusted (in an evolutionary sense) to track changes in BMRs.

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The origin of avian endothermy is a long-held question the answer of which cannot be provided by first level observations. Oological and reproductive characters have collectively provided a new source of data useful for phylogenetic analyses and paleobiological inferences. In addition, the observations of reproductive and oological evolutionary trends in saurischian dinosaurs lead to the interpretation that not only, the thermophysiology of these dinosaurs progressively became more avian-like but after re-examination allows to infer that deinonychosaurians represented here by three troodontids and one dromaeosaurid might already have developed an avian-like endothermy, thus predating the rise of avians. These results based on reproductive traits are independently corroborated by the discoveries of troodontid dinosaurs 1) in high latitudes, 2) covered with feathers in Chinese Lagerstätten, and recently 3) fossilized in a death pose identical to an avian sleeping posture.

A origem da endotermia nas aves é uma questão há muito discutida e sua resposta não pode ser encontrada através de observações superficiais. Caracteres oológicos e reprodutivos surgiram como uma nova fonte de dados relevantes tanto para análises filogenéticas quanto para inferências paleobiológicas dos dinossauros Saurischia. Além disso, as observações das tendências evolutivas reprodutivas e oológicas nos dinossauros Saurischia nos levam a inferir que não apenas, como anteriormente a termofisiologia deste grupo de dinossauros tornou-se progressivamente ornítica, mas um posterior reexame nos permitiu concluir que os deinonicossauros, representados aqui por dois troodontídeos e um dromeossaurídeo, provavelmente já haviam desenvolvido uma endotermia semelhante a das aves, anterior, portanto, ao seu surgimento. Estes resultados baseados em características reprodutivas são independentemente corroborados pela descoberta dos dinossauros troodontídeos 1) em altas latitudes, 2) recobertos com penas, no chinês Langerstäten, e, recentemente, 3) fossilizados em posição idêntica à postura de repouso das aves.

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The origin of avian endothermy is a long-held question the answer of which cannot be provided by first level observations. Oological and reproductive characters have collectively provided a new source of data useful for phylogenetic analyses and paleobiological inferences. In addition, the observations of reproductive and oological evolutionary trends in saurischian dinosaurs lead to the interpretation that not only, the thermophysiology of these dinosaurs progressively became more avian-like but after re-examination allows to infer that deinonychosaurians represented here by three troodontids and one dromaeosaurid might already have developed an avian-like endothermy, thus predating the rise of avians. These results based on reproductive traits are independently corroborated by the discoveries of troodontid dinosaurs 1) in high latitudes, 2) covered with feathers in Chinese Lagerstätten, and recently 3) fossilized in a death pose identical to an avian sleeping posture.

A origem da endotermia nas aves é uma questão há muito discutida e sua resposta não pode ser encontrada através de observações superficiais. Caracteres oológicos e reprodutivos surgiram como uma nova fonte de dados relevantes tanto para análises filogenéticas quanto para inferências paleobiológicas dos dinossauros Saurischia. Além disso, as observações das tendências evolutivas reprodutivas e oológicas nos dinossauros Saurischia nos levam a inferir que não apenas, como anteriormente a termofisiologia deste grupo de dinossauros tornou-se progressivamente ornítica, mas um posterior reexame nos permitiu concluir que os deinonicossauros, representados aqui por dois troodontídeos e um dromeossaurídeo, provavelmente já haviam desenvolvido uma endotermia semelhante a das aves, anterior, portanto, ao seu surgimento. Estes resultados baseados em características reprodutivas são independentemente corroborados pela descoberta dos dinossauros troodontídeos 1) em altas latitudes, 2) recobertos com penas, no chinês Langerstäten, e, recentemente, 3) fossilizados em posição idêntica à postura de repouso das aves.