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Racial microaggressions often occur in U.S. higher education. However, less is known about how White American students reason about their evaluations of racial microaggressions. The current study investigated how 213 White college students (54.46% cisgender women) attending a PWI in the Southeast U.S. in the Fall of 2019 justified their evaluations of the acceptability of racial microaggressions presented in vignettes. Following Social Domain Theory, to assess participants' social reasoning, we conducted quantitative content analysis of participants' open-ended justifications for their evaluations. Multiple regression analyses revealed that participants were less likely to evaluate racial microaggressions as negative the more they employed justifications focused on 1) assuming that the behaviors in the situation followed conventions of the classroom, 2) judging the professor's response as correct, and 3) asserting that the behavior was likely to happen to anyone. Further, the higher participants' endorsement of color-blind attitudes the more likely they were to evaluate racial microaggressions as appropriate. However, reasoning centered on 1) assuming differential treatment based on race, 2) perceiving the behavior as harmful, and 3) considering the behavior was against conventional expectations was associated with finding racial microaggressions to be more negative. The current study highlights the value of investigating underlying reasoning behind evaluating racial microaggressions in addition to color-blind attitudes. The findings suggest that higher education professionals should consider interventions which pay particular attention to unpacking students' reasoning, untangling acceptance of Ethnocentric narratives and providing information that challenges classroom behaviors that, while potentially appearing conventional, in fact perpetuate harm through microaggressions.

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Introduction: A large majority of US organizations profess a commitment to diversity, but their definitions of diversity can vary greatly. While previous research demonstrates a shift in diversity definitions to include fewer protected demographic groups and more non-demographic characteristics, the present research examines whether this shift might be a motivated process among dominant group members related to anti-egalitarian and colorblind belief systems. Methods: Using quantitative and qualitative methods, we explored potential underlying ideologies that may be associated with White Americans' shifting definitions of diversity. White Americans (N = 498) were asked how they define diversity, as well as who should be included in a range of diversity initiatives. Results: White participants' higher anti-egalitarian belief was associated with stronger colorblind ideology endorsement, which was then associated with shifting their definition of diversity to include fewer disadvantaged demographic groups, more advantaged demographic groups, and non-demographic groups, as well as employing a colorblind inclusion rhetoric. Discussion: Instead of only "broadening" diversity to include more characteristics than diversity's original focus, White Americans higher in anti-egalitarian and colorblind motives exhibited a simultaneous "narrowing" of diversity to include fewer protected demographic characteristics. Taken together, these findings have implications for dominant group members' definition of diversity and the subtle ways in which colorblind ideology may be enacted.

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Contemporary manifestations of race are dynamic and elusive in the forms and shapes they take. "Colourblind" racism is effective at drawing on seemingly objective and race-neutral discourses to obfuscate racialized forms of structural exclusion. Framed by Critical Race Theory and Critical Narrative Analysis this paper presents an example from the Australian context that examines the relationships between a grassroots initiative developed by creatives from the African diaspora and two not-for-profit human services organizations, to illustrate how ideologies of race are enacted and obscured by managerialist ideologies and discourses of risk. Specifically, it shows how harmful dominant cultural narratives of deficit and danger transforms racialized Africans in Australia into "risky subjects." In a managerialist organization, risk must be controlled, and thus risk becomes the rationality for the control of racialized and risky subjects. Resistance to control by those subjects produces forms of organizational defensiveness that are mobilized through managerialist discourses and practices that work to structurally exclude. These findings illustrate the ways ideologies of race work alongside and through other ideological discourses and practices which render racialized dynamics of oppression race-neutral.

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Purpose Subscribing to color-blind racial attitudes may contribute to inequities in the delivery of oral care and affect treatment of diverse patients. The purpose of this study was to survey all entry-level dental hygiene students in one state to determine color-blind racial attitudes.Methods After IRB approval, a convenience sample of 220 dental hygiene students in all entry-level programs in Virginia were invited to participate in this cross-sectional study. The Color-Blind Racial Attitudes Scale (CoBRAS), an effective, validated measuring instrument, was used to quantify unawareness of contemporary racist ideals. Three subscales (Racial Privilege, Institutional Discrimination, and Blatant Racial Issues) were also measured by the survey. Descriptive statistics, separate one-way between-subjects ANOVA, and independent samples t-tests were used to analyze the data.Results One hundred and sixty (n=160) dental hygiene students completed the survey. Independent samples t-tests revealed statistically significant differences when comparing year in program and program type. Participants in their second year of dental hygiene education had significantly lower overall CoBRAS scores compared to those in their first year of education (M=50.76, M=59.13, respectively; p=0.004). Participants enrolled in a baccalaureate dental hygiene (B.S.) program had significantly lower overall CoBRAS scores compared to those enrolled in an associate (A.S.) program (M=50.53, M=59.54, respectively; p=0.002).Conclusion Participants possessed moderate levels of color-blindness suggesting a need for more awareness and training early in dental hygiene education to increase delivery of culturally competent oral healthcare.

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Patients with chronic headaches sometimes prefer non-pharmacological methods for pain management. We have shown previously that green light exposure (GLED, Green Light Emitting Diode) reversed thermal hyperalgesia and mechanical allodynia in a rat model of neuropathic pain. This effect is mediated through the visual system. Moreover, we recently showed that GLED was effective in decreasing the severity of headache pain and the number of headache-days per month in migraine patients. The visual system is comprised of image-forming and non-image-forming pathways; however, the contribution of different photosensitive cells to the effect of GLED is not yet known. Here, we report a 66-year-old man with headaches attributed to other disorders of homeostasis and color blindness who was recruited in the GLED study. The subject, diagnosed with protanomaly, cannot differentiate green, yellow, orange, and red colors. After completing the GLED exposure protocol, the subject noted significant decreases in headache pain intensity without reduction in the number of headache-days per month. The subject also reported improvement in the quality of his sleep. These findings suggest that green light therapy mediates the decrease of the headache pain intensity through non-image-forming intrinsically photosensitive retinal ganglion cells. However, the subject did not report a change in the frequency of his headaches, suggesting the involvement of cones in reduction of headache frequency by GLED. This is the first case reported of a colorblind man with chronic headache using GLED to manage his headache pain and may increase our understanding of the contribution of different photosensitive cells in mediating the pain-relieving effects of GLED.

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This special section situates White racial socialization (WRS) in its rightful place-in the context of White supremacy. The first article offers a conceptual framework to guide research on White adolescents' racial identity development in this context. The second employs a critical ethnographic approach to explore White racial identity development among incarcerated White adolescents. Additional studies use qualitative, observational, and mixed methods to understand WRS practices in White families. The final article presents a conceptual model of digital WRS. Authors provide recommendations for future research, such as engaging in critical researcher self-reflexivity and focusing on content of racial socialization messages. Two commentaries highlight cross-cutting themes and urge developmental scientists to view this special section as a call to action.

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This study presents a thematic analysis of socialization messages about race and racism in White parents' reports of their discussions with adolescents about current events involving racism (e.g., police brutality toward Black Americans). Two samples of White parents of primarily White adolescents ages 14-17 were recruited online in September 2019 (Study 1, N = 123) and June 2020 (Study 2, N = 104). Key themes included color-conscious messages, color-blind messages, endorsing equal treatment, and references to Whiteness. Rates of discussion in 2020 (79-81%) were double that of 2019 (40.2-43.4%). However, color-conscious messages were less common in 2020 compared to 2019, and references to Whiteness were rare in 2020. Color-blind messages were similarly prevalent across both studies.

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The racial socialization (RS) strategies used by White parents have received limited empirical attention. Thus, the current study examined the frequency and content of White parents' RS messages to their White children during an observed parent-child discussion task on discrimination when youth were 14 years old. Participants were 243 White caregivers and their adolescent children (47.7% female). Overall, parents provided few RS messages, but when they did, they often relayed egalitarian messages or messages minimizing racism. Other types of RS strategies that emerged included acknowledging racism targeting people of color, discriminatory attitudes, and false beliefs in reverse racism.

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Purpose: Individuals who subscribe to a color-blind racial ideology may not be aware of differences or differential treatment based on race which may be related to racial inequality in the delivery of oral health care. The purpose of this study was to determine color-blind racial attitudes in a convenience sample of clinical dental hygienists.Methods: A convenience sample of practicing dental hygienists recruited through social media via snowball sampling was invited to participate in this cross-sectional survey study. The Color-Blind Racial Attitudes Scale (CoBRAS), a valid and reliable measuring instrument, was used to determine unawareness of racial attitudes and stereotyping. Three subscales (Racial Privilege, Institutional Discrimination, and Blatant Racial Issues) were measured by the survey. Descriptive statistics and separate one-way between-subjects ANOVA were used to analyze the data.Results: Two-hundred and thirty-three (n = 233) dental hygienists in clinical practice completed the survey. ANOVA revealed statistically significant differences in overall CoBRAS scores when comparing age groups and ethnicities. Participants aged 18-29 had significantly lower overall CoBRAS scores compared to participants aged 60 and over (x = 49.41, x = 59.17, respectively; p = .019). African American participants scored significantly lower on overall CoBRAS scores compared only to those in the Other ethnicity category (x = 42.27, x = 62.08, respectively; p = .029).Conclusion: Participants possessed moderate levels of color-blindness, suggesting unawareness of racism and a need to understand the implications of racism as a means of promoting equity and improve oral health care delivery. Findings emphasize a need for more research examining color-blind ideology and how it affects oral health care delivery to diverse patient populations.

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Racial equality requires coalitions and solidarity across racial groups, but there continues to be racially colorblind and anti-Black attitudes within the Asian American community, a diverse community consisting of individuals with ancestral origins in East, Southeast, and South Asia. However, there is limited research on the factors that contribute to the development of these attitudes among Asian Americans. Parents could potentially play an important role in perpetuating or challenging the colorblind and anti-Black messages that pervade U.S. society. Thus, the current study investigates how 309 Asian American adolescents' (M age = 16.8; SD = 1.15; 50.5% female) perceptions of parents' racial socialization messages about race and racism relate to the youth's racial attitudes. Latent profiles of youth's perceptions of mothers' and fathers' racial socialization messages and their associations with colorblind racial attitudes and anti-Black attitudes were examined. For mothers, three socialization profiles were identified: Race Avoidant, Race Hesitant, and Race Embracing; for fathers, two socialization profiles were identified: Race Avoidant and Race Embracing. Adolescents with Race Embracing mothers reported less anti-Black attitudes compared to those who had Race Hesitant mothers. For fathers, there were no differences among the profiles and anti-Black attitudes. However, surprisingly, adolescents with Race Embracing fathers were more likely to have colorblind racial attitudes compared to those with Race Avoidant fathers. The findings highlight the importance of racial socialization in the development of Asian American adolescents' racial attitudes to continue fighting for interracial solidarity.

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This study explored psychological predictors that may impact viewers' decision to watch television shows on the basis of perceived racial or ethnic representation. 1998 undergraduate students selected from a list of motivations for watching television that included race-specific motivations such as "a character is of my race/ethnicity." Participants also completed attitudinal measures of colorblind racial ideology, social dominance orientation, ethnic identity, and ethnic stigma consciousness. Analysis revealed that prejudicial beliefs predicted less salience for racial representation when making choices about television watching, while deeper connection to one's ethnic group predicted greater salience for representation when making these choices.

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The novel coronavirus of 2019 exposed, in an undeniable way, the severity of racial inequities in America's healthcare system. As the urgency of the pandemic grew, administrators, clinicians, and ethicists became concerned with upholding the ethical principle of "most lives saved" by re-visiting crisis standards of care and triage protocols. Yet a colorblind, race-neutral approach to "most lives saved" is inherently inequitable because it reflects the normality and invisibility of 'whiteness' while simultaneously disregarding the burdens of 'Blackness'. As written, the crisis standards of care (CSC) adopted by States are racist policies because they contribute to a history that treats Black Americans are inherently less than. This paper will unpack the idealized fairness and equity pursued by CSC, while also considering the use of modified Sequential Organ Failure Assessment (mSOFA) as a measure of objective equality in the context of a healthcare system that is built on systemic racism and the potential dangers this can have on Black Americans with COVID-19.

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Discussing racism is challenging for nurse educators and nursing students, because White privilege and racial inequities are deeply embedded and normalized in our societal structures. Avoiding the topic of racism in nursing education renders White supremacy invisible and serves to perpetuate racial discrimination and disparities in health care. Nursing education has the potential to train both faculty and students to recognize and dismantle oppressive attitudes, structures, and practices that have led to negative health outcomes for patients. Equipping nurse educators with the tools to understand and address White supremacy as well as to educate themselves and their students about antiracist language, self-care, and patient care is an important step toward promoting health and creating an antiracist society.

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Although diversity approaches attempt to foster inclusion, one size may not fit all. In five studies, African Americans (N = 1,316), who varied in strength of racial identification, contemplated interviewing at a company with a multicultural or colorblind approach. Participants in the multicultural condition anticipated pressure to be prototypical group members relative to colorblind and control conditions. Only weakly identified participants reacted to this pressure, experiencing more anxiety and inauthenticity in the multicultural relative to colorblind (not control) company. Strongly identified participants experienced less anxiety and inauthenticity in the multicultural relative to colorblind and control companies. Inauthenticity among weakly identified participants was apparent in self-descriptions and linked with worse hiring outcomes in multicultural relative to colorblind and control contexts. Despite predictions, there were no self-stereotyping effects. Diversity approaches that make some group members more comfortable may prove simultaneously constraining for others, highlighting the complexity in how diversity approaches affect individuals.

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International students are an essential part of higher education institutions in the U.S.A., bringing diversity to the educational environment and enhancing the economy. Asian Indian students comprise around 17.3% of all international students, and this population faces a range of unique stressors, with racial and ethnic discrimination being one that is understudied. In the present study, 192 Asian Indian international students completed a survey to understand how colorblind racial ideology and sense of belonging impacted their racism-related stress. We also examined this relationship based on gender and level of education. Our results suggest that colorblind racial ideology, sense of belonging, gender, and level of education significantly explained 32.3% of the variance in racism-related stress. In general, students who identified as women and undergraduate students (versus graduate students) reported higher levels of racism-related stress. Our findings suggests that in addition to the acculturation barriers international students face, Asian Indian international students deal with barriers related to racism. These findings have implications for educators and counselors in higher education institutions that Asian Indian international students have multifaceted identities that impact how they interpret racism.

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In this study, we examined the association between racial colorblindness and inaction to address prejudice. Conceptualized as a type of legitimizing ideology that maintains societal inequality, we hypothesized that colorblindness would be associated with less confidence in and lower likelihood of engaging in action to address prejudice. Our study examined the role of affective variables in explaining the link between colorblindness and inaction, as well as explored potential racial group differences. We used multigroup structural equation modeling analysis to test for measurement and structural invariance of our hypothesized model across White, Asian American, and Underrepresented racial minority (i.e., African American, Latinx American, Hawaiian/Pacific Islander, Native American, and Multiracial students from Underrepresented groups) college students. In Study 1 (n = 1,125), we found that greater colorblindness was indirectly associated with less confidence in action through affective variables (e.g., intergroup empathy, and positive and negative emotions during intergroup interactions). In Study 2 (n = 1,356), we found that greater colorblindness was indirectly related to less likelihood of action through intergroup empathy. In both studies, we demonstrated measurement and structural invariance across racial groups, indicating that our hypothesized model functioned similarly across White, Underrepresented, and Asian American students. Our findings have implications for future research and practice to challenge colorblindness and to promote engagement in actions to reduce prejudice.

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Purpose: Color-blind racial attitudes and biases have been linked to racial prejudice which may potentially affect dental hygiene care to diverse patients. The purpose of this pilot study was to determine the color-blind racial attitudes of dental hygiene students.Methods: A 20-item, Color-Blind Racial Attitudes Scale (CoBRAS) electronic survey was sent to a convenience sample of 41 first-year and 30 second-year dental hygiene students (n=71) in a dental hygiene program in Virginia. The CoBRAS instrument measures contemporary racial attitudes and stereotyping in three subcategories: Unawareness of Racial Privilege, Institutional Discrimination, and Blatant Racial Issues. CoBRAS scores range from 20-120, with higher scores indicating elevated levels of denial of racism. Descriptive statistics were used to analyze the data.Results: Of the 71 students invited to participate, 70 completed the survey (n=70) for a 98.6% response rate. The majority of respondents were White females (70%, 98% respectively), aged 18-29 (90%). Results indicated an overall average CoBRAS score of 64.89. No statistically significant findings were identified between the two groups in regards to overall scores (p>0.05).Conclusion: A majority of the participants in this pilot study possessed moderate levels of color-blind racial attitudes, suggesting rejection of the concept of racism. Color-blind racial attitudes and biases have been linked to a lack of awareness of White privilege. Further education in this area may foster improved interactions with diverse patient populations.

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This commentary focuses on reflecting on how we, as bisexuality researchers, consider the effects of, and contribute toward addressing, systemic racism and ethnic discrimination affecting bisexual individuals in different global contexts. This commentary is intended to provoke critical thinking among bisexuality and other sex researchers on how we may best consider (or not) racism and ethnic oppression when dealing with ethnically, racially, or culturally diverse bisexual samples of individuals. In this commentary, I argue that current social and behavioral science researchers who focus on bisexuality tend to follow one or more of the following three approaches: a "color blind" approach, an inclusive approach or, a racially-ethnically specific approach. I will identify the advantages and considerations for taking one approach versus another.

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Providing culturally competent patient care requires an awareness of racial and cultural norms as well as a recognition of racism. Yet, there is a paucity of research devoted to this problem. In dental education, increased attention has focused on eliminating oral health care disparities due to ethnicity and race. Further investigation to determine the relationship between color-blind attitudes (failing to recognize the impact of race and racism on social justice) and dental educators' cultural competence is needed. The aim of this study was to determine dental faculty and student baseline color-blind racial attitudes scale scores, using the color-blind racial attitudes scale (CoBRAS). This 20-item instrument that measures three subscales of color-blind racial attitudes (Unawareness of Racial Privilege, Institutional Discrimination, and Blatant Racial Issues) was administered to student and faculty groups at one U.S. dental school. Out of a total 245 students in three class years, 235 responded to all items, for a response rate of 96%; out of a total 77 faculty members invited to participate, 71 responded to all items, for a response rate of 92%. Underrepresented minority (URM) faculty scored significantly higher on the Institutional Discrimination subscale and lower on Unawareness of Racial Privilege compared to non-URM students. Males scored significantly higher on Institutional Discrimination and Blatant Racial Issues compared to females. Compared to white students, URM students scored lower on all three subscales. The findings were consistent with previous studies indicating that female and URM students were more sensitive to racism compared to male and majority students. The findings that white faculty had higher awareness of racial privilege than white students and that URM faculty were less aware of institutional discrimination than URM students provided new information. These findings suggest that dental faculty members need professional development opportunities that promote becoming color-conscious and understanding privilege and biases, that model instruction on discussing race and racism, and that extend beyond a brief workshop.

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BACKGROUND: Color perception is important for fish to survive and reproduce in nature. Visual pigments in the retinal photoreceptor cells are responsible for receiving light stimuli, but the function of the pigments in vivo has not been directly investigated in many animals due to the lack of color-blind lines and appropriate color-perception tests. METHODS: In this study, we established a system for producing color-blind fish and testing their spectral sensitivity. First, we disrupted long-wavelength-sensitive (LWS) opsins of medaka (Oryzias latipes) using the CRISPR/Cas9 system to make red-color-blind lines. Single guide RNAs were designed using the consensus sequences between the paralogous LWSa and LWSb genes to simultaneously introduce double-frameshift mutations. Next, we developed a non-invasive and no-prior-learning test for spectral sensitivity by applying an optomotor response (OMR) test under an Okazaki Large Spectrograph (OLS), termed the O-O test. We constructed an electrical-rotary cylinder with black/white stripes, into which a glass aquarium containing one or more fish was placed under various monochromatic light conditions. The medaka were irradiated by the OLS every 10 nm, from wavelengths of 700 nm to 900 nm, and OMR was evaluated under each condition. RESULTS: We confirmed that the lws - medaka were indeed insensitive to red light (protanopia). While the control fish responded to wavelengths of up to 830 nm (λ = 830 nm), the lws - mutants responded up to λ = 740 nm; however, this difference was not observed after adaptation to dark: both the control and lws - fish could respond up to λ = 820 ~ 830 nm. CONCLUSIONS: These results suggest that the lws - mutants lost photopic red-cone vision, but retained scotopic rod vision. Considering that the peak absorption spectra (λmax) of medaka LWSs are about 560 nm, but the light-adapted control medaka could respond behaviorally to light at λ = 830 nm, red-cone vision could cover an unexpectedly wide range of wavelengths, and behavioral tests could be an effective way to measure spectral sensitivity. Using the CRISPR/Cas9 and O-O systems, the establishment of various other color-blind lines and assessment of their spectra sensitivity could be expected to proceed in the future.

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