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BACKGROUND: The exclusive breastfeeding rates is low in some countries. Low breastfeeding rates results in higher healthcare expenses and adverse health outcomes for individuals and society. Co-parenting is effective in promoting breastfeeding as it involves shared responsibility and collaboration between parents in raising children. However, the current breastfeeding co-parenting intervention programs exhibits significant variations in components, timing, and duration across studies. An evidence-based breastfeeding co-parenting intervention program is essential for enhancing breastfeeding-related outcomes. OBJECTIVE: To develop an evidence-based breastfeeding co-parenting intervention program for healthcare providers to guide parents with primiparas on breastfeeding. METHOD: To form an initial version of the intervention program, a systematic literature review was conducted to consolidate information on current intervention programs. Two rounds of Delphi method were followed to gather expert comments for the program modification to establish the formal version. RESULTS: Fourteen articles published between 1995 and 2022 were screened. Details of these researches, including starting and ending time, duration and specific contents, were integrated to developed the initial program. Then, six experts completed the two rounds consultation with a positive coefficient of 85.71%, coefficient judgment basis of 0.93, familiarity coefficient of 0.87, authority coefficient of 0.90 and the Kendall's W of 0.62. Finally, an evidence-based breastfeeding co-parenting intervention program was constructed in this study, consisting of breastfeeding co-parenting courses, individual counselling and a father's support group. CONCLUSION: This research developed a breastfeeding co-parenting intervention program for healthcare providers to guide primiparous parents to improve breastfeeding rates. Through a systematic literature review and Delphi method with good reliability, the program integrates breastfeeding courses, individual counseling, and a father's support group. Future research will focus on evaluating its impact and scalability to benefit maternal and infant health globally. TRIAL REGISTRATION: ChiCTR.org.cn (ChiCTR2300069648). Registration date: 2023-03-22.

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This study used the Actor-Partner Interdependence Model to examine how parents' adult attachment influences their their own and the partners' co-parenting and parent-child relationships. Participants were from a cross-sectional sample of 1313 Chinese heterosexual married couples (fathers' Mage = 39.74, SD = 5.61; mothers' Mage = 37.55, SD = 5.04) whose biological children were pupils (Mage = 10.25, SD = 2.35). Results revealed that: (a) Couple members' actor effects from adult attachment avoidance to positive and negative co-parenting and parent-child closeness and conflict were found both significant; (b) The actor effects from adult attachment anxiety to negative co-parenting and parent-child conflict were found significant, whereas only partner effect from attachment avoidance to positive co-parenting and from attachment anxiety to parent-child conflict were significant. The results highlight the negative effects of parents' attachment avoidance and anxiety on their partners' parenting function.

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Co-parenting, the undertaking of parents working together to raise their children, is well documented as an important consideration of children's adjustment in Western countries, but we know less about the role of co-parenting in other cultures. In China, for example, co-parenting has only recently emerged in the social science literature. This study aimed to examine the cultural sensitivity of the CoPAFS instrument among Chinese Mandarin-speaking parents. CoPAFS is a 27-item survey designed to assess co-parenting across married and unmarried family structures originally developed in English. Data were collected from 729 Chinese-speaking and 348 English-speaking respondents. Factor analyses and confirmatory factor analyses indicated that the overall model fit for the translated co-parenting measure was acceptable in Mandarin. However, the five CoPAFS subscales (trust, respect, communication, acrimony, and value) differed across comparison groups, with communication notable for its lack of endorsement among Chinese couples. Implications of measuring co-parenting within Chinese families are offered.

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Introduction: Problem behaviors in preschoolers signals social adjustment challenges. This study investigates the mediating role of parenting stress in the relationship between co-parenting and these behaviors, and examines how family resilience impacts this dynamic. Methods: A detailed survey was conducted with 1279 mothers of 3-6-year-olds in Shanghai, China, focusing on co-parenting, family resilience, parenting stress, and children's behaviors. We employed SPSS 26 for initial tests and the Hayes PROCESS macro in SPSS 23.0 for advanced analysis, using bootstrap methods to assess mediation and moderation effects. Results: The analysis revealed that maternal parenting stress mediates the relationship between co-parenting and children's problem behaviors. Specifically, unsupportive co-parenting or low levels of supportive co-parenting heightened maternal stress, which in turn increased children's problem behaviors. Family resilience was found to moderate this relationship, buffering the impact of unsupportive co-parenting on maternal stress. High family resilience levels were associated with lower parenting stress, regardless of co-parenting quality. Conclusion: These findings highlight the importance of enhancing family resilience and supportive co-parenting to mitigate parenting stress and reduce problem behaviors in children. It has practical implications for developing family-centred interventions and policies to strengthen family resilience and co-parenting skills.

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Elective co-parenting families, meaning two (or more parents) who are not in a romantic relationship having a child together, are becoming more common amongst cisgender, heterosexual parents. The study of elective co-parenting families offers researchers a unique opportunity to decouple co-parenting relationships from romantic relationships, but little research to date has explored their experiences. This study explored two research questions: why do individuals decide to enter into elective co-parenting arrangements? And how do they manage their co-parenting arrangement and their relationship with their co-parent? Interview data from 10 elective co-parents (5 mothers and 5 fathers) were analyzed according to the principles of reflexive thematic analysis. Sociological theorisations of family practices, family display and family thinking were utilized to make sense of the data. The results centred around two organizing themes ('Reproducing the traditional family' and 'Modernising the traditional family'), and participants experienced a tension between these two ideas. Participants aimed to manage their co-parenting relationship with shared values and friendship, but defining their relationship was complex and gendered parenting patterns were ubiquitous. Findings add nuance to theorisations of family life and demonstrate that traditional parenthood ideologies remain pervasive, as parents aim to imagine and pursue parenthood on their own terms.

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Objective: With the social changes, a growing number of women have joined the workforce, leading to a shift in the traditional roles of child-rearing. There has been a growing focus on the significance of fathers' roles in child development, particularly the influence of fathers on children's problematic behaviors, making it an increasingly prominent issue. However, there is limited understanding regarding the potential mechanisms through which fathers may exert influence on children's problem behaviors. To address this gap, this study sought to investigate the link between paternal co-parenting and preschool children's problem behaviors, and the mediating effects of maternal parenting burnout and psychological aggression. Methods: This study used the Personal Information Form and four scales to administer questionnaires to 1164 mothers of preschool children (Mage = 4.26 ± 0.85) in Guangdong Province, China. The collected data underwent processing and analysis using SPSS 22.0. Results: Paternal co-parenting demonstrated a significantly positive correlation with problem behaviors among preschool children. The impact of paternal co-parenting on children's problem behaviors was mediated by maternal parenting burnout, maternal psychological aggression, and the combined effect of maternal parenting burnout and psychological aggression. Conclusion: Maternal parenting burnout and maternal psychological aggression play a sequential mediating role between paternal co-parenting and problem behaviors among preschool children. This study revealed the internal mechanism through which paternal co-parenting influenced problem behaviors exhibited by children. It provides some evidence to support the important role of fathers in child development, and provides a reference for policymakers and educators to develop interventions for children's problem behaviors.

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Introduction: Developmental research has traditionally focused on parenting behaviors such as nurturance and care, due to a focus on mothers' behaviors. Other parenting dimensions such as parental playfulness (i.e., use of creativity, imagination, and humor during parent-child interactions) have comparatively received little attention. Although some measures tap into parents' and children's playfulness, these measures are limited. Indeed, they do not assess multiple domains of playfulness (i.e., both parents' and the child's playfulness) or focus on one specific setting such as children's play with peers. Additionally, existing measures do not consider parents' reactions to their partners' playfulness. To address this gap, we created the Playful Parenting Style Questionnaire (PPSQ), which assesses three domains of playfulness: (a) parental domain, (b) child domain, and (c) partner domain. The current study is part of a validation effort of the PPSQ using a quantitative design. We aimed to explore the structure of the PPSQ by conducting an exploratory factor analysis (EFA) for each domain of playfulness; and assess the construct validity of the PPSQ factors by examining the association between factors and existing measures of playful parenting, child playfulness, and co-parenting. Method: The sample includes 347 parents (294 mothers and 53 fathers) of preschool/school-age children (M = 5.10 years; 182 girls, 127 boys). Parents were mostly White (76%) and from a low socioeconomic risk background. Parents completed a series of online questionnaires including the PPSQ, 3 existing measures of parent playfulness (Parental Playfulness Questionnaire; Adult Playfulness Scale; Challenging Parenting Behavior Scale), 2 existing measures of child playfulness (Child Behavior Inventory; Children's Playfulness Scale), a coparenting instrument (Co-parenting Relationship Scale), and sociodemographic information. Results: The EFA revealed 4 factors for parental playfulness, 1 factor for child playfulness, and 3 factors for partner's playfulness. The construct validity analyses identified multiple associations indicating convergence with existing measures for the parent and partners domain but not the child factor. Discussion: This study allowed for a better understanding of the playful dynamics that occur within a family.

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Previous research has documented the various challenges people living with HIV face as they navigate intimate relationships, including what is often referred to as disclosure. In studies of gay, bisexual and other men who have sex with men, the issue of telling or not telling others about an HIV-positive status has been examined primarily in relation to communication with sexual partners, with few studies focusing on other aspects of intimacy. Drawing on interviews with gay men living with HIV, conducted in four clinics in London, this article explores the narratives of men who have been asked by female friends about the possibility of being a sperm donor. The narratives highlight layers of complexity which have received little attention, not only in research on HIV but also in studies of sperm donation and co-parenting. The article advances dialogue between these two largely separate bodies of work. Our data suggest that reluctance to share an HIV-positive status with others can be an important factor in deciding how to answer the 'sperm donor question'. Examining reproductive relationships of a specific kind - those based on friendships between women and gay men - the article develops the understanding of how secrecy about HIV shapes intimate lives.

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Parenting was drastically challenged during the COVID-19 pandemic as families complied with the consequent containment for sanitary and social reasons. The purpose of this study is to explore the relationships among self-report measures (co-parenting, emotional experience and parental support network) and the employment condition (teleworking parents and at-home parents with governmental leave aid) that might be associated with the everyday life change, and their contribution towards family's daily routines during the first COVID-19 lockdown. A sample of 878 parents (90.2% mothers), aged from 21 to 61 years (39.58 ± 6.08), and mainly of Portuguese nationality (97.2%), was gathered through an online survey. Participants completed sociodemographic data and answered questions related to four positive parenting dimensions (Daily routines, Co-parenting, Emotional experience, and Support network) rating on a five-point Likert scale how much their behavior changed during the lockdown. Descriptive statistics and multilinear regression models were tested as well as a mediation model. The results showed that Emotional experience, Co-parenting, and Support network played an important role in family Daily routines, reinforcing that the first COVID-19 lockdown was lived differently by parents according to their employment conditions. Furthermore, the pathways model of factors associated with parental adaptability is suggestive that the direct effect of Emotional experience on Daily routines is partially mediated by Co-parenting and Support network. In line with previous studies on the complexity and dynamic ecology of parenting, the reported indicators showcase the interrelated facets of parenting and its corresponding support needs. Further, clear indicators for the design of family support interventions and family resilience enhancement to stressor events are discussed.

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From the moment they become pregnant, future parents anticipate how they will coordinate, support and divide the tasks related to their child. This is known as co-parenting. Research carried out in three french gynaecology-obstetrics departments and in social network examined fathers' perceptions of co-parenthood and sought to determine whether these were in line with scientific conceptions of the concept.

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BACKGROUND: Suboptimal breastfeeding rates are a public health priority. Interventions that include both breastfeeding women and their co-parents can increase breastfeeding initiation, duration, and exclusivity. eHealth can be an effective means of designing such interventions, as parents increasingly use the internet to access health information. The objective of this study was to determine maternal and co-parent satisfaction with an eHealth intervention. METHODS: The study was part of a larger randomized controlled trial that took place in Canada between March 2018 and April 2020. Data was collected from mothers (n = 56) and co-parents (n = 47). INTERVENTION: The eHealth intervention group received: 1) continued access to an eHealth breastfeeding co-parenting resource from the prenatal period to 52 weeks postpartum; 2) a virtual meeting with a research assistant; and 3) 6 weekly emails reminders. Follow-up data were collected via online questionnaires completed at 2 weeks post enrollment and 4, 12, 26, and 52 weeks postpartum to determine use and satisfaction with the intervention components. FINDINGS: The majority of mothers and co-parents independently reviewed the eHealth resource (95% and 91%, respectively), with higher use in the prenatal period. Participants found the resource to be useful (92%), informative (93%), targeted both parents (90%), and easy to understand (97%). Participants indicated the resource was comprehensive, easily navigated, convenient, and engaging. APPLICATION TO PRACTICE: Providing mothers and their co-parents with breastfeeding co-parenting support via an eHealth intervention delivers accessible, comprehensive information which may assist them in meeting their breastfeeding goals.

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Introduction: Maternal distress increased during the COVID-19 pandemic, significantly impacting children's media use. The purpose of this study was to explore the influence mechanism of maternal COVID-19 distress on preschoolers' problematic media us through a moderated mediation model; specifically, we examined the possible mediating roles of parenting stress and negative instrumental use of media in parenting and the moderating role of supportive co-parenting. Methods: An online survey was conducted in a sample of 1357 children (Mage = 4.01, SD = 1.06; 47.4% boys) and their parents from six public kindergartens in Shanghai, China. The mothers provided information by completing measures on their levels of distress related to COVID-19, parenting stress levels, digital parenting practices, and perception of supportive co-parenting from their partners. Additionally, both parents rated their children's problematic media use. Results: (1) maternal COVID-19 distress was significantly and positively related to children's problematic media use; (2) this relationship was sequentially mediated by parenting stress and parents' negative instrumental use of media in parenting; and (3) supportive co-parenting moderated the serial mediation path by reducing the effect of maternal COVID-19 distress on parenting stress. Conclusion: The findings provide some support and guidance for preventing children's problematic media use and enhancing parental adaptation during the COVID-19 pandemic or in potentially adverse situations.

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Background: Although the beneficial effects of exclusive breastfeeding (EBF) on infants and mothers have been identified, EBF rates remain unsatisfactory. Co-parenting interventions for perinatal couples have not been systematically evaluated and analyzed for their effects on breastfeeding outcomes. Aims and Objectives: To systematically evaluate the effects of co-parenting interventions on the rate of EBF, breastfeeding knowledge, breastfeeding attitude, breastfeeding self-efficacy, parental relationship, and partner support. Methods: Randomized controlled trials and quasi-experimental studies were systematically screened in eight online databases from inception to November 2022. Trials included in this review were assessed using the Cochrane Risk of Bias Assessment Tool. Eligible trials were used to conduct a meta-analysis using Review Manager software. The I2 statistic was used to assess heterogeneity between studies. When it was not possible to conduct a meta-analysis, a descriptive analysis was used to present the findings due to insufficient data from the included studies. Results: Fifteen of the 1,869 articles reviewed met the inclusion criteria. Co-parenting interventions significantly improved the EBF rate at 16 weeks (odds ratio [OR] = 3.85, 95% confidence interval, CI [1.84 to 8.03], p < 0.001, I2 = 69%) and 6 months (OR = 2.82, 95% CI [1.47 to 5.41], p = 0.002, I2 = 85%). This study revealed that co-parenting interventions made statistically significant improvements in parental relationship (standardized mean difference [SMD] = 0.26, 95% CI [0.13 to 0.38], p < 0.001, I2 = 80%). There was no evidence of the effectiveness of interventions in terms of overall parental support (SMD = 0.75, 95% CI [-0.46 to 1.97], p < 0.001, I2 = 96%). Given the discrepant and limited research data, findings on breastfeeding knowledge, breastfeeding attitudes, and breastfeeding self-efficacy were presented descriptively. Conclusion: Co-parenting interventions effectively increase EBF rates at 16 weeks and 6 months postpartum, and improve breastfeeding knowledge, breastfeeding attitude, and parental relationships.

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The COVID-19 pandemic was a source of significant stress due to health and safety concerns and measures to control the virus' spread, such as mobility restrictions. This measure was especially demanding for parents with school aged children, who had to find new work-family balance as their children participate in online education while attempting to work remotely. To evaluate parents' stress trajectories during the pandemic, we conducted Ecological Momentary Assessments (EMAs) during lockdown for 29 days in 68 families in Santiago, Chile. In addition, we evaluated the role of educational level and income, co-parenting, and number of children in parents' stress trajectories. Our results showed that during the first weeks of lockdown expected protective factors (i.e., income and co-parental support) were not able to influence parents' daily stress management. Moreover, parents with higher educational levels reported worse stress adaptation than less educated parents. On the other hand, co-parental conflict was significantly associated with parent's stress. Our study captured an acute response to COVID-19 related challenges. This study contributes to understanding how parents adjust to stress during adverse circumstances such as the COVID-19 pandemic.

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This study analyzed the effects of intervention programs aimed at mothers and fathers who were expecting their first child on the individual, marital, and parental domains of the transition to parenthood. We selected research articles published between 2008 and 2019 from the PsycINFO, PubMed/MEDLINE, Scopus, and Web of Science databases. Data collection was carried out between November and December 2019 by two independent judges, according to the recommendations of PRISMA (Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Review and Meta-Analyzes). After applying the inclusion criteria, we classified the results of 30 articles and 6782 participants into three themes corresponding to each assessed domain. Positive effects on each domain of the transition to parenthood were obtained, mostly from interventions on couple communication, problem-solving, and co-parenting. Enhancements in the couple's relationship improve parents' mental health and marital satisfaction, which may promote parental emotional availability and responsiveness.

Este estudo analisou os efeitos de programas de intervenção com mães e pais à espera do primeiro filho sobre os domínios individual, conjugal e parental da transição para a parentalidade. Foram selecionados artigos empíricos publicados entre 2008 e 2019 nas bases de dados PsycINFO, PubMed/MEDLINE, Scopus, e Web of Science. A coleta de dados foi realizada por dois juízes independentes, conforme as recomendações do PRISMA (Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Review e Meta-Analyzes). Após a aplicação dos critérios de inclusão, os resultados de 30 artigos e 6782 participantes foram classificados em três temas correspondentes a cada domínio avaliado. Foram verificados efeitos positivos em cada domínio da transição para a parentalidade, principalmente com intervenções sobre a comunicação de casal, solução de problemas e coparentalidade. Os benefícios para o relacionamento do casal favoreceram a saúde mental e a satisfação conjugal dos pais, o que pode promover maior disponibilidade emocional e capacidade de resposta dos pais.

Este estudio analizó los efectos de programas de intervención con madres y padres en los dominios individual, matrimonial y parental de la transición a la parentalidad. Se seleccionaron artículos publicados entre 2008 y 2019 de las bases de datos PsycINFO, PubMed/MEDLINE, Scopus y Web of Science. La recolección se realizó por dos jueces independientes, según las recomendaciones de PRISMA (Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Review and Meta-Analyzes). Después de aplicar los criterios de inclusión, se clasificaron los resultados de 30 artículos y 6782 participantes en tres temas correspondientes a cada dominio. Se obtuvieron efectos positivos en cada dominio de la transición, principalmente con intervenciones sobre la comunicación de la pareja, la resolución de problemas y la coparentalidad. Los beneficios en la relación de pareja mejoran la salud mental de los padres y la satisfacción marital, lo que puede promover la disponibilidad emocional y la capacidad de respuesta de los padres.

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While a link between co-parenting conflict and academic performance is frequently assumed, studies on this association have shown inconsistent results. In addition, academic engagement and depression can potentially mediate the association between co-parenting conflict and academic performance. However, studies have not tested this proposition. This paper examined the direct effect of co-parenting conflict on adolescent academic performance and the mediating effect of academic engagement and depression. Using data from a nationally representative survey, the 2020 China Family Panel Studies (CFPS), we constructed a sample of 1989 dyads of adolescents (aged 10 to 15) and their primary caregivers in China. The structural equation model analysis revealed that co-parenting conflict was not directly linked with academic performance but was indirectly associated with adolescent academic performance through academic engagement and depression. The findings provide empirical support that academic engagement and depression play important mediating roles in the relationship between co-parenting conflict and adolescent academic performance. Future intervention programs aimed at promoting adolescent academic performance may consider a family-oriented approach to identify adolescents from families with co-parenting conflict and provide them with professional support.

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Parental burnout refers to the feelings of extreme exhaustion that many parents experience due to parenting. Although parental burnout has received considerable interest from researchers, the effects and mechanisms of parental burnout on adolescents' physical and psychological development remain largely unknown. This study investigated the relationship between parental burnout and adolescents' problem behaviors in Chinese families. We explored the mediating roles of family function, parental psychological aggression, and adolescent self-control, as well as the moderating role of co-parenting. Questionnaires were distributed to 600 adolescents and their primary caregivers, and the data were collected on three different occasions. In total, 174 paired participants completed the survey (44.9% boys; Mean-age = 14.18 years). Bootstrapping results showed that parental burnout was positively associated with adolescents' problem behavior. In addition, family function, parental psychological aggression, and adolescent self-control mediated the relationship between parental burnout and adolescents' problem behavior. Co-parenting moderated the effects of parental burnout on family function and parental psychological aggression. The result of structural equation modeling (SEM) generally supported the above results. These findings reveal the negative effects and mechanisms of parental burnout on adolescent problem behavior, providing empirical evidence that can be applied to prevent the negative effects of parental burnout.

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The co-parenting relationship matters for postdivorce parental adjustment. This study explores the relative impact of different forms of co-parenting behaviors, coupled with an individual's psychological resources, in explaining parent mental health in recently divorced or separated parents (n = 355). A latent variable structural equation model was fit to examine pathways between dimensions of co-parenting (support, overt conflict, self-controlled covert conflict, and externally controlled covert conflict), various psychological resources (satisfaction with the divorce decree, perceived competence of the co-parent, and self-efficacy), and adverse mental health symptomology. Significant direct pathways were identified between overt co-parenting conflict and adverse mental health. Indicators of co-parenting quality were tied differentially to various resources. Indirect effects were found for both self-controlled covert conflict and overt conflict on adverse mental health symptomology through self-efficacy. Leverage points and considerations for health professionals and practitioners working with divorcing parents are discussed.

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Objective: Our research aim is to enrich the conceptualization of high conflict post-divorce co-parenting by understanding the dynamic process involved. Background: The studied phenomena were explored by linking previous scientific knowledge to practice. Method: We cross-referenced the previous study results with the experiences reported by eight professionals and tried to answer the following research question: how professionals' experience and previous scientific knowledge contribute to a better understanding of HC post-divorce co-parenting? Individual face to face interviews were conducted and analyzed regarding the qualitative theoretical reasoning of thematic analysis. Results: Analysis allowed us to highlight how four main axes are related to HC post-divorce co-parenting: (1) Parents for life, (2) Acting in the child's best interests, (3) Managing disagreements, and (4) Healing the separation. Conclusion: Our findings capture high conflict post-divorce co-parenting as a multidimensional dynamic process. As such, dealing with co-parenting disagreements must be understood as a moment in a process that is influenced by, and influences, other dimensions. Implications: Interventions must consider the four dimensions and their reciprocal interactions. The essential elements underlying parents' difficulties may reside at a multiplicity of levels: inter-relational, contextual, and intrapsychic. Each level contains key potential factors in understanding these families, and in formulating intervention guidelines.

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BACKGROUND: With the increasing involvement of women in the workforce, the involvement of grandparents in infant care is a phenomenon that is climbing worldwide. Studies on intergenerational co-parenting are still in their infancy, and no consensus has been reached on the concept. OBJECTIVES: The aim here is to explore the antecedents, attributes, and consequences of intergenerational co-parenting and clarify the concept of intergenerational co-parenting specifically during the postpartum period. METHODS: The Rodgers' evolutionary framework (2000) for concept analysis was adopted to guide the process of developing, clarifying, and refining the concept of "intergenerational co-parenting." RESULTS: A total of 14 original articles on intergenerational co-parenting covering the postpartum period were included. Six attributes were identified from the literature: division of labor on infant care between parents and grandparents, generational boundaries, intergenerational transmission, reciprocal support between parents and grandparents in infant care, commitment on parenting decisions between parents and grandparents, and intergenerational communication. Sharing the responsibility of childrearing with grandparents, the development stage of the family, family structure, and cultural origins were antecedents of intergenerational co-parenting that emerged from the literature. The consequences of intergenerational co-parenting included the mother's parenting self-efficacy, the psychological health of both the grandparents and parents, the co-parenting relationship between the couple, and the intergenerational relationship. CONCLUSIONS: Based on the identified antecedents, attributes, and consequences of intergenerational co-parenting, and a definition of the concept of intergenerational co-parenting during the postpartum period of first-time parents, a conceptual framework was proposed. The conceptual framework will serve as a platform for developing a supportive program for intergenerational co-parenting in the postpartum period and for related research. To improve the intergenerational co-parenting relationship, postpartum interventions should involve both generations who are involved in infant care. In addition, the components of division of labor, generational boundaries, mutual support between the generations on infant care, the commitment on parenting decision-making within two generations, and skills of intergenerational communication should be considered in intergenerational co-parenting interventions.

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