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The study of extremophilic microorganisms has sparked interest in understanding extraterrestrial microbial life. Such organisms are fundamental for investigating life forms on Saturn's icy moons, such as Enceladus, which is characterized by potentially habitable saline and alkaline niches. Our study focused on the salt-alkaline soil of the Al Wahbah crater in Saudi Arabia, where we identified microorganisms that could be used as biological models to understand potential life on Enceladus. The search involved isolating 48 bacterial strains, sequencing the genomes of two thermo-haloalkaliphilic strains, and characterizing them for astrobiological application. A deeper understanding of the genetic composition and functional capabilities of the two novel strains of Halalkalibacterium halodurans provided valuable insights into their survival strategies and the presence of coding genes and pathways related to adaptations to environmental stressors. We also used mass spectrometry with a molecular network approach, highlighting various classes of molecules, such as phospholipids and nonproteinogenic amino acids, as potential biosignatures. These are essential features for understanding life's adaptability under extreme conditions and could be used as targets for biosignatures in upcoming missions exploring Enceladus' orbit. Furthermore, our study reinforces the need to look at new extreme environments on Earth that might contribute to the astrobiology field.

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The ultimate consequence of Darwin's theory of common descent implies that all life on earth descends ultimately from a common ancestor. Biochemistry and molecular biology now provide sufficient evidence of shared ancestry of all extant life forms. However, the nature of the Last Universal Common Ancestor (LUCA) has been a topic of much debate over the years. This review offers a historical perspective on different attempts to infer LUCA's nature, exploring the debate surrounding its complexity. We further examine how different methodologies identify sets of ancient protein that exhibit only partial overlap. For example, different bioinformatic approaches have identified distinct protein subunits from the ATP synthetase identified as potentially inherited from LUCA. Additionally, we discuss how detailed molecular evolutionary analysis of reverse gyrase has modified previous inferences about an hyperthermophilic LUCA based mainly on automatic bioinformatic pipelines. We conclude by emphasizing the importance of developing a database dedicated to studying genes and proteins traceable back to LUCA and earlier stages of cellular evolution. Such a database would house the most ancient genes on earth.

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Past and present habitability of Mars have been intensely studied in the context of the search for signals of life. Despite the harsh conditions observed today on the planet, some ancient Mars environments could have harbored specific characteristics able to mitigate several challenges for the development of microbial life. In such environments, Fe2+ minerals like siderite (already identified on Mars), and vivianite (proposed, but not confirmed) could sustain a chemolithoautotrophic community. In this study, we investigate the ability of the acidophilic iron-oxidizing chemolithoautotrophic bacterium Acidithiobacillus ferrooxidans to use these minerals as its sole energy source. A. ferrooxidans was grown in media containing siderite or vivianite under different conditions and compared to abiotic controls. Our experiments demonstrated that this microorganism was able to grow, obtaining its energy from the oxidation of Fe2+ that came from the solubilization of these minerals under low pH. Additionally, in sealed flasks without CO2, A. ferrooxidans was able to fix carbon directly from the carbonate ion released from siderite for biomass production, indicating that it could be able to colonize subsurface environments with little or no contact with an atmosphere. These previously unexplored abilities broaden our knowledge on the variety of minerals able to sustain life. In the context of astrobiology, this expands the list of geomicrobiological processes that should be taken into account when considering the habitability of environments beyond Earth, and opens for investigation the possible biological traces left on these substrates as biosignatures.

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The purine nucleobases adenine and guanine are complex organic molecules that are essential for life. Despite their ubiquitous presence on Earth, purines have yet to be detected in observations of astronomical environments. This work therefore proposes to study the infrared spectra of purines linked to terrestrial biochemical processes under conditions analogous to those found in the interstellar medium. The infrared spectra of adenine and guanine, both in neat form and embedded within an ice made of H2O:NH3:CH4:CO:CH3OH (10:1:1:1:1), were analysed with the aim of determining which bands attributable to adenine and/or guanine can be observed in the infrared spectrum of an astrophysical ice analogue rich in other volatile species known to be abundant in dense molecular clouds. The spectrum of adenine and guanine mixed together was also analysed. This study has identified three purine nucleobase infrared absorption bands that do not overlap with bands attributable to the volatiles that are ubiquitous in the dense interstellar medium. Therefore, these three bands, which are located at 1255, 940, and 878 cm-1, are proposed as an infrared spectral signature for adenine, guanine, or a mixture of these molecules in astrophysical ices. All three bands have integrated molar absorptivity values (ψ) greater than 4 km mol-1, meaning that they should be readily observable in astronomical targets. Therefore, if these three bands were to be observed together in the same target, then it is possible to propose the presence of a purine molecule (i.e., adenine or guanine) there.

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Introduction: Technological advances have made possible long space travels and even exoplanetary colonies in the future. Nevertheless, the success of these activities depends on our ability to produce edible plants in stressful conditions such as high radiation, extreme temperatures and low oxygen levels. Since beneficial microorganisms, such as fungal endophytes from extreme environments, have helped agriculture cope with those difficulties, endophytic fungi may be a putative tool to ensure plant growth under exoplanetary conditions. Additionally, growing crops in polyculture has been shown to increase productivity and spatial efficiency, which is essential given the likely space restrictions in such conditions. Methods: We evaluated the effect of the inoculation with a mix of two fungal endophytes from the Atacama Desert on performance (survival and biomass) and nutritional quality of three crop species (lettuce, chard and spinach) grown under exoplanetary conditions. In addition, we measured the amount of antioxidants (flavonoids and phenolics) as possible mechanisms to cope with such abiotic conditions. The exoplanetary conditions were; high UV radiation, low temperature, low water availability, and low oxygen levels. These crops were put in growing chambers in monoculture, dual culture and polyculture (the three species in the same pot) for 30 days. Results and Discussion: Our results show that inoculation with extreme endophytes improved survival by ca. 15 - 35% and biomass by ca. 30 - 35% in all crop species. The most evident increase was when grown in polyculture, except for survival in spinach, where inoculated plants had higher survival only in dual culture. Nutritional quality and the amount of the antioxidant compounds antioxidants increased in all crop species when inoculated with the endophytes. Overall, fungal endophytes isolated from extreme environments such as the Atacama Desert, the driest desert in the world, could be a key biotechnological tool for future space agriculture, helping plants cope with environmental stress. Additionally, inoculated plants should be grown in polyculture to increase crop turnover and space-use efficiency. Lastly, these results provide useful insights to face the future challenges of space-farming.

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Microbial mats are biologically diverse communities that are analogs to some of the earliest ecosystems on Earth. In this study, we describe a unique transiently hypersaline microbial mat uncovered in a shallow pond within the Cuatro Cienegas Basin (CCB) in northern México. The CCB is an endemism-rich site that harbors living stromatolites that have been studied to understand the conditions of the Precambrian Earth. These microbial mats form elastic domes filled with biogenic gas, and the mats have a relatively large and stable subpopulation of archaea. For this reason, this site has been termed archaean domes (AD). The AD microbial community was analyzed by metagenomics over three seasons. The mat exhibited a highly diverse prokaryotic community dominated by bacteria. Bacterial sequences are represented in 37 phyla, mainly Proteobacteria, Firmicutes, and Actinobacteria, that together comprised >50% of the sequences from the mat. Archaea represented up to 5% of the retrieved sequences, with up to 230 different archaeal species that belong to 5 phyla (Euryarchaeota, Crenarchaeota, Thaumarchaeota, Korarchaeota, and Nanoarchaeota). The archaeal taxa showed low variation despite fluctuations in water and nutrient availability. In addition, predicted functions highlight stress responses to extreme conditions present in the AD, including salinity, pH, and water/drought fluctuation. The observed complexity of the AD mat thriving in high pH and fluctuating water and salt conditions within the CCB provides an extant model of great value for evolutionary studies, as well as a suitable analog to the early Earth and Mars.

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Halite (NaCl mineral) has exhibited the potential to preserve microorganisms for millions of years on Earth. This mineral was also identified on Mars and in meteorites. In this study, we investigated the potential of halite crystals to protect microbial life-forms on the surface of an airless body (e.g., meteorite), for instance, during a lithopanspermia process (interplanetary travel step) in the early Solar System. To investigate the effect of the radiation of the young Sun on microorganisms, we performed extensive simulation experiments by employing a synchrotron facility. We focused on two exposure conditions: vacuum (low Earth orbit, 10-4 Pa) and vacuum-ultraviolet (VUV) radiation (range 57.6-124 nm, flux 7.14 W/m2), with the latter representing an extreme scenario with high VUV fluxes comparable to the amount of radiation of a stellar superflare from the young Sun. The stellar VUV parameters were estimated by using the very well-studied solar analog of the young Sun, κ1 Cet. To evaluate the protective effects of halite, we entrapped a halophilic archaeon (Haloferax volcanii) and a non-halophilic bacterium (Deinococcus radiodurans) in laboratory-grown halite. Control groups were cells entrapped in salt crystals (mixtures of different salts and NaCl) and non-trapped (naked) cells, respectively. All groups were exposed either to vacuum alone or to vacuum plus VUV. Our results demonstrate that halite can serve as protection against vacuum and VUV radiation, regardless of the type of microorganism. In addition, we found that the protection is higher than provided by crystals obtained from mixtures of salts. This extends the protective effects of halite documented in previous studies and reinforces the possibility to consider the crystals of this mineral as potential preservation structures in airless bodies or as vehicles for the interplanetary transfer of microorganisms.

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Hydrothermal systems and their deposits are primary targets in the search for fossil evidence of life beyond Earth. However, to learn how to decode fossil biomarker records in ancient hydrothermal deposits, we must first be able to interpret unambiguously modern biosignatures, their distribution patterns, and their association with physicochemical factors. Here, we investigated the molecular and isotopic profile of microbial biomarkers along a thermal gradient (from 29 to 72°C) in a hot spring (labeled Cacao) from El Tatio, a geyser field in the Chilean Andes with abundant opaline silica deposits resembling the nodular and digitate structures discovered on Mars. As a molecular forensic approach, we focused on the analysis of lipid compounds bearing recognized resistance to degradation and the potential to reconstruct the paleobiology of an environment on a broader temporal scale than other, more labile, biomolecules. By exploiting the lipid biomarkers' potential to diagnose biological sources and carbon fixation pathways, we reconstructed the microbial community structure and its ecology along the Cacao hydrothermal transect. The taxonomic adscription of the lipid biomarkers was qualitatively corroborated with DNA sequencing analysis. The forensic capacity of the lipid biomarkers to identify biosources in fresh biofilms was validated down to the genus level for Roseiflexus, Chloroflexus, and Fischerella. We identified lipid biomarkers and DNA of several new cyanobacterial species in El Tatio and reported the first detection of Fischerella biomarkers at a temperature as high as 72°C. This, together with ecological peculiarities and the proportion of clades being characterized as unclassified, illustrates the ecological singularity of El Tatio and strengthens its astrobiological relevance. The Cacao hydrothermal ecosystem was defined by a succession of microbial communities and metabolic traits associated with a high- (72°C) to low-(29°C) temperature gradient that resembled the inferred metabolic sequence events from the 16S rRNA gene universal phylogenetic tree from thermophilic to anoxygenic photosynthetic species and oxygenic phototrophs. The locally calibrated DNA-validated lipidic profile in the Cacao biofilms provided a modern (molecular and isotopic) end member to facilitate the recognition of past biosources and metabolisms from altered biomarkers records in ancient silica deposits at El Tatio analogous to Martian opaline silica structures.

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Microbial communities have been explored in various terrestrial subsurface ecosystems, showing metabolic potentials that could generate noteworthy morphological and molecular biosignatures. Recent advancements in bioinformatic tools have allowed for descriptions of novel and yet-to-be cultivated microbial lineages in different ecosystems due to the genome reconstruction approach from metagenomic data. Using shotgun metagenomic data, we obtained metagenome-assembled genomes related to cultivated and yet-to-be cultivated prokaryotic lineages from a silica and iron-rich cave (Monte Cristo) in Minas Gerais State, Brazil. The Monte Cristo Cave has been shown to possess a high diversity of genes involved with different biogeochemical cycles, including reductive and oxidative pathways related to carbon, sulfur, nitrogen, and iron. Three genomes were selected for pangenomic analysis, assigned as Truepera sp., Ca. Methylomirabilis sp., and Ca. Koribacter sp. based on their lifestyles (radiation resistance, anaerobic methane oxidation, and potential iron oxidation). These bacteria exhibit genes involved with multiple DNA repair strategies, starvation, and stress response. Because these groups have few reference genomes deposited in databases, our study adds important genomic information about these lineages. The combination of techniques applied in this study allowed us to unveil the potential relationships between microbial genomes and their ecological processes with the cave mineralogy and highlight the lineages involved with anaerobic methane oxidation, iron oxidation, and radiation resistance as functional models for the search for extant life-forms outside our planet in silica- and iron-rich environments and potentially on Mars.

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The origin and age of opaline silica deposits discovered by the Spirit rover adjacent to the Home Plate feature in the Columbia Hills of Gusev crater remains debated, in part because of their proximity to sulfur-rich soils. Processes related to fumarolic activity and to hot springs and/or geysers are the leading candidates. Both processes are known to produce opaline silica on Earth, but with differences in composition, morphology, texture, and stratigraphy. Here, we incorporate new and existing observations of the Home Plate region with observations from field and laboratory work to address the competing hypotheses. The results, which include new evidence for a hot spring vent mound, demonstrate that a volcanic hydrothermal system manifesting both hot spring/geyser and fumarolic activity best explains the opaline silica rocks and proximal S-rich materials, respectively. The opaline silica rocks most likely are sinter deposits derived from hot spring activity. Stratigraphic evidence indicates that their deposition occurred before the emplacement of the volcaniclastic deposits comprising Home Plate and nearby ridges. Because sinter deposits throughout geologic history on Earth preserve evidence for microbial life, they are a key target in the search for ancient life on Mars.

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The slopes of northeastern Hellas Basin, Mars exhibit a wide variety of fluvial landforms. In addition to the Dao-Niger-Harmakhis-Reull Valles outflow channels, many smaller channels and valleys cut into this terrain, several of which include discontinuous sections. We have mapped these channels and channel-associated depressions to investigate potential paleolakes from the Navua Valles in the West, through the Hadriacus Mons volcano in the center, to the Ausonia Montes in the East. We have identified three groups of candidate paleolakes at the source regions of major drainages and a fourth paleolake type scattered along the lower reaches of these drainages. Each paleolake group has a distinct character, determined by different formative processes, including precipitation and groundwater for lakes at the channel sources, and fluvially transported water at the lower channel reaches. Only one of these 34 basins had been cataloged previously in paleolake basin databases. Several of these sites are at proximity to the Hadriacus volcanic center, where active dikes during the Hesperian could have produced hydrothermal systems and habitable environments. Deposits within these paleolake depressions and at the termini of channels connected to these candidate paleolakes contain the geological and potentially biological record of these environments.

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The high-altitude atmosphere is a harsh environment with extremely low temperatures, low pressure, and high UV irradiation. For this reason, it has been proposed as an analogue for Mars, presenting deleterious factors similar to those on the surface of that planet. We evaluated the survival of extremophilic UV-resistant yeasts isolated from a high-elevation area in the Atacama Desert under stratospheric conditions. As biological controls, intrinsically resistant Bacillus subtilis spores were used. Experiments were performed in two independent stratospheric balloon flights and with an environmental simulation chamber. The three following different conditions were evaluated: (i) desiccation, (ii) desiccation plus exposure to stratospheric low pressure and temperature, and (3) desiccation plus exposure to the full stratospheric environment (UV, low pressure, and temperature). Two strains, Naganishia (Cryptococcus) friedmannii 16LV2 and Exophiala sp. strain 15LV1, survived full exposures to the stratosphere in larger numbers than did B. subtilis spores. Holtermanniella watticus (also known as Holtermanniella wattica) 16LV1, however, suffered a substantial loss in viability upon desiccation and did not survive the stratospheric UV exposure. The remarkable resilience of N. friedmannii and Exophiala sp. 15LV1 under the extreme Mars-like conditions of the stratosphere confirms its potential as a eukaryotic model for astrobiology. Additionally, our results with N. friedmannii strengthen the recent hypothesis that yeasts belonging to the Naganishia genus are fit for aerial dispersion, which might account for the observed abundance of this species in high-elevation soils.IMPORTANCE Studies of eukaryotic microorganisms under conditions of astrobiological relevance, as well as the aerial dispersion potential of extremophilic yeasts, are still lacking in the literature compared to works with bacteria. Using stratospheric balloon flights and a simulation chamber, we demonstrate that yeasts isolated from an extreme environment are capable of surviving all stressors found in the stratosphere, including intense UV irradiation, scoring an even higher survival than B. subtilis spores. Notably, the yeast N. friedmannii, which displayed one of the highest tolerances to the stratospheric environment in the experiments, was recently proposed to be adapted to airborne transportation, although such a hypothesis had not yet been tested. Our results strengthen such an assumption and can help explain the observed distribution and ecology of this particular yeast species.

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Polar volcanoes harbor unique conditions of extreme temperature gradients capable of selecting different types of extremophiles. Deception Island is a marine stratovolcano located at Maritime Antarctica that is notable for its pronounced temperature gradients over very short distances, reaching values up to 100 °C in the fumaroles, and subzero temperatures next to the glaciers. Due to these characteristics, Deception can be considered an interesting analogue of extraterrestrial environments. Our main goal in this study was to isolate thermophilic and psychrophilic bacteria from sediments associated with fumaroles and glaciers from two geothermal sites in Deception Island, comprising temperatures between 0 and 98 °C, and to evaluate their survivability to desiccation and UV-C radiation. Our results revealed that culturable thermophiles and psychrophiles were recovered among the extreme temperature gradient in Deception volcano, which indicates that these extremophiles remain alive even when the conditions do not comprise their growth range. The viability of culturable psychrophiles in hyperthermophilic environments is still poorly understood and our work showed the importance of future studies about their survival strategies in high temperatures. Finally, the spore-forming thermophilic isolates which we found have displayed good survival to desiccation and UV-C irradiation, which suggests their potential to be further explored in astrobiological studies.

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The aim of this study was to understand the spatial distribution of microbial communities (18S and 16S rRNA genes) across one of the harshest terrestrial landscapes on Earth. We carried out Illumina sequencing using samples from two expeditions to the high slopes (up to 6050 m.a.s.l.) of Volcán Socompa and Llullaillaco to describe the microbial communities associated with the extremely dry tephra compared to areas that receive water from fumaroles and ice fields made up of nieves penitentes. There were strong spatial patterns relative to these landscape features with the most diverse (alpha diversity) communities being associated with fumaroles. Penitentes did not significantly increase alpha diversity compared to dry tephra at the same elevation (5825 m.a.s.l.) on Volcán Socompa, but the structure of the 18S community (beta diversity) was significantly affected by the presence of penitentes on both Socompa and Llullaillaco. In addition, the 18S community was significantly different in tephra wetted by penitentes versus dry tephra sites across many elevations on Llullaillaco. Traditional phototrophs (algae and cyanobacteria) were abundant in wetter tephra associated with fumaroles, and algae (but not cyanobacteria) were common in tephra associated with penitentes. Dry tephra had neither algae nor cyanobacteria but did host potential phototrophs in the Rhodospirillales on Volcán Llullaillaco, but not on Socompa. These results provide new insights into the distribution of microbes across one of the most extreme terrestrial environments on Earth and provide the first ever glimpse of life associated with nieves penitentes, spire-shaped ice structures that are widespread across the mostly unexplored high-elevation Andean Central Volcanic Zone.

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This work presents the photochemistry of ultraviolet (UV) irradiated coronene in water ices at 15 K, studied using mid-infrared Fourier transform (FTIR) spectroscopy for C24H12:H2O at concentrations of (1:50), (1:150), (1:200), (1:300) and (1:400). Previous UV irradiation studies of anthracene:H2O, pyrene:H2O and benzo[ghi]perylene:H2O ices at 15 K have shown that aromatic alcohols and ketones, as well as CO2 and H2CO are formed at very low temperatures. Like-wise, here, in addition to the coronene cation, hydroxy-, keto-, and protonated coronene (coronene-H+) are formed. The rate constants for the decay of neutral coronene and for the formation of photoproducts have been derived. It is shown that PAHs and their UV-induced PAH:H2O photoproducts have mid-infrared spectroscopic signatures in the 5-8 µm region that can contribute to the interstellar ice components described by Boogert et al. (2008) as C1-C5. Our results suggest that oxygenated and hydrogenated PAHs could be in UV-irradiated regions of the ISM where water-rich ices are important.

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Entender como se originou a vida é um dos desafios propostos pela astrobiologia. Este trabalho busca compreender como argilas aniônicas do tipo hidróxidos duplos lamelares (LDH) interagem com alguns aminoácidos quando submetido a condições presentes no passado do nosso planeta. Para tanto, foi estudada a interação dos aminoácidos cisteína (cys), cistina (cyss) e ácido glutâmico (glu) com duas variações de LDHs: hidrotalcita, que consistem em um LDH de Mg e Al (LDHal), e as piroauritas, um LDH de Mg e Fe III (LDHfe). Os LDHs foram sintetizados com cada um dos três aminoácidos por coprecipitação (cop) e reconstrução (rec). Todos os compostos produzidos foram submetidos a irradiação com UV-C (254 nm), longa exposição à temperatura de 70 °C e ciclos de hidratação e dessecação a 70 °C, tentando simular condições próximas à Terra primitiva. Os resultados obtidos indicam que os aminoácidos estão presentes no espaço interlamelar dos LDHs. Sendo que os LDHfe e os LDHal_glu se mostraram mais inertes, não sofrendo variações significativas com as simulações prebióticas. Para os LDHal_cys ocorreu a formação de ligações do tipo S-S durante a síntese; a irradiação UV-C afetou de maneira distinta os LDHs cop e rec, sendo que apenas nos reconstruídos ocorreu a formação de SO4-2. A simulação de temperatura causou o rompimento das ligações S-S e a formação de ligações S-H, enquanto os ciclos de hidratação, ao que tudo indicam, acarretam a liberação da cisteína do meio interlamelar. Essas características presentes no LDHal_cys estão, em partes, também presentes para os LDHal_cyss. De maneira geral, os LDHs são eficientes na intercalação de aminoácidos e estáveis quanto à temperatura e, em alguns casos, a radiação UV-C. Desta forma os LDHs se mostram como um mineral que pode ter tido a sua importância na Terra prebiótica, sendo aptos a atuar na retenção de aminoácidos, resistência a algumas das condições presentes e com a possibilidade de liberar estas biomoléculas novamente no ambiente, tornando-as disponíveis para o aumento de complexidade química

Understanding how life originated is one of the challenges proposed by astrobiology. This work aims to understand how layered double hydroxides (LDH), a type of anionic clay, may interact with amino acids when submitted to conditions present in prebiotic Earth. It was studied the interaction between amino acids cysteine (cys), cystine (cyss) and glutamic acid (glu) with two LDHs variations: hydrotalcite, LDH of Mg and Al (LDHal), and pyroaurite, a LDH of Mg and Fe III (LDHfe). LDHs were synthesized with each of the three amino acids by coprecipitation (cop) and reconstruction (rec). All the LDHs produced were submitted to UV-C irradiation (254 nm), long exposure to the temperature of 70 °C and cycles of hydration and desiccation at 70 °C, trying to simulated the conditions presents in primordial Earth. The results indicate that amino acids are present in the interlayer region of LDHs. Since LDHfe and LDHal_glu were shown to be more inert, they did not undergo significant variations with the prebiotic simulations. For LDHal_cys the formation of S-S type bonds occurred during the synthesis; the UV-C irradiation differently affected the LDHs cop and rec, being that only in the reconstructed the formation of SO4-2 occurred. The temperature simulation induced breakage of the S-S bonds and formation of S-H bonds, whereas the hydration cycles leaded to the release of cysteine from the interlamellar space. These features present in LDHal_cys are, partially, also present for the LDHal_cyss. In general, LDHs are efficient in the intercalation of amino acids, stable in temperature and, in some cases, to UV-C radiation. In this manner, the LDHs may have been important minerals in the prebiotic Earth, being able to act in the retention of amino acids, resisting to some of the prevailing conditions and possibly releasing these biomolecules back into the environment, making them available for increasing chemical complexity

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In the past twenty years, molecular genetics has created powerful tools for genetic manipulation of living organisms. Whole genome sequencing has provided necessary information to assess knowledge on gene function and protein networks. In addition, new tools permit to modify organisms to perform desired tasks. Gene function analysis is speed up by novel approaches that couple both high throughput data generation and mining. Synthetic biology is an emerging field that uses tools for generating novel gene networks, whole genome synthesis and engineering. New applications in biotechnological, pharmaceutical and biomedical research are envisioned for synthetic biology. In recent years these new strategies have opened up the possibilities to study gene and genome editing, creation of novel tools for functional studies in virus, parasites and pathogenic bacteria. There is also the possibility to re-design organisms to generate vaccine subunits or produce new pharmaceuticals to combat multi-drug resistant pathogens. In this review we provide our opinion on the applicability of synthetic biology strategies for functional studies of pathogenic organisms and some applications such as genome editing and gene network studies to further comprehend virulence factors and determinants in pathogenic organisms. We also discuss what we consider important ethical issues for this field of molecular biology, especially for potential misuse of the new technologies.

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The Sairecabur volcano (5971 m), in the Atacama Desert, is a high-altitude extreme environment with high daily temperature variations, acidic soils, intense UV radiation, and low availability of water. Four different species of yeasts were isolated from this region using oligotrophic media, identified and characterized for their tolerance to extreme conditions. rRNA sequencing revealed high identity (>98%) to Cryptococcus friedmannii, Exophiala sp., Holtermanniella watticus, and Rhodosporidium toruloides. To our knowledge, this is the first report of these yeasts in the Atacama Desert. All isolates showed high resistance to UV-C, UV-B and environmental-UV radiation, capacity to grow at moderate saline media (0.75-2.25 mol/L NaCl) and at moderate to cold temperatures, being C. friedmannii and H. watticus able to grow in temperatures down to -6.5°C. The presence of pigments, analyzed by Raman spectroscopy, correlated with UV resistance in some cases, but there is evidence that, on the natural environment, other molecular mechanisms may be as important as pigmentation, which has implications for the search of spectroscopic biosignatures on planetary surfaces. Due to the extreme tolerances of the isolated yeasts, these organisms represent interesting eukaryotic models for astrobiological purposes.

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A vida é primeiramente reconhecida como tal com base em considerações subjetivas a priori. A riqueza das relações subjetivas complexas da vida conosco é a "bioassinatura" mais fundamental, que nos permite construir estratégias para a busca de vida no universo.

la vida se reconoce como tal según consideraciones subjetivas a priori. La riqueza de las relaciones subjetivas complejas con nosotros es la biofirma más fundamental, que nos permite construir estrategias para la búsqueda de la vida en el universo.

Life is primarily recognized as such based on priori subjective considerations. The richness of complex subjective exchanges with us is the most fundamental biosignature, which allows us to build strategies for the search of life in the universe.

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A vida é primeiramente reconhecida como tal com base em considerações subjetivas a priori. A riqueza das relações subjetivas complexas da vida conosco é a "bioassinatura" mais fundamental, que nos permite construir estratégias para a busca de vida no universo.(AU)

la vida se reconoce como tal según consideraciones subjetivas a priori. La riqueza de las relaciones subjetivas complejas con nosotros es la biofirma más fundamental, que nos permite construir estrategias para la búsqueda de la vida en el universo.(AU)

Life is primarily recognized as such based on priori subjective considerations. The richness of complex subjective exchanges with us is the most fundamental biosignature, which allows us to build strategies for the search of life in the universe.(AU)